Digitized  by  tine  Internet  Arciiive 

in  2010  with  funding  from 

Boston  Library  Consortium  IVIember  Libraries 


http://www.archive.org/details/reportofcommissimass 


REPORT 


COMMISSION  APPOINTED   TO   INVESTIGATE 


THE   EXISTING   SYSTEMS 


MANUAL   TEAININQ 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION. 


BOSTON : 

WRIGHT  &  POTTER  PRINTING  CO.,  STATE  PRINTERS, 

18  Post  Office  Square. 

1893. 


229 IB 


REPORT. 


To  the  Honorable  the  Senate  and  the  House  of  Representatives  of  Massa- 
chusetts. 

The  Commissioners  appointed  to  investigate  the  existing  sys- 
tems of  manual  training  and  industrial  education,  and  to  report 
the  results  of  their  investigations  with  such  recommendations  as 
may  seem  best  to  them,  respectfully  submit  their  report. 

The  General  Court  of  the  year  1891  passed  the  following 
resolve  :  — 

Resolved,  That  the  governor  appoint  a  commission,  to  consist 
of  three  persons,  who  are  hereby  instructed  to  investigate  the 
existing  systems  of  manual  training  and  industrial  education,  with 
special  reference  to  the  question  whether  any  existing  system  of 
manual  training  or  industrial  education,  or  any  modification 
thereof,  can  be  adopted  with  advantage  in  any  of  the  public 
schools  of  this  Commonwealth.  The  commissioners  herein  pro- 
vided for  shall  serve  without  compensation,  but  shall  be  allowed 
for  all  expenses  actually  incurred  in  the  performance  of  their 
official  duties  such  a  sum  as  the  governor,  with  the  advice  and 
consent  of  the  council,  shall  approve,  which  shall  be  paid  out  of 
the  treasury  of  the  Commonwealth ;  and  they  shall  report  the 
results  of  their  investigations,  with  such  recommendations  as  may 
seem  best  to  them,  to  the  next  general  court.  \_Ax)proved  June 
9,1891. 

In  July,  1891,  His  Excellency  Governor  William  E.  Russell 
appointed  as  members  of  the  Commission  Mrs.  Louisa  P.  Hop- 
kins, Mr.  Edwin  P.  Seaver  and  Mr.  George  E.  McNeill,  who 
qualified  soon  afterwards,  and  held  their  first  meeting  in  August. 


4  MAI^UAL    TEAIND^G   ANJy 

Mrs.  Hopkins  was  made  the  chairman  and  Mr.  Seaver  the  secre- 
tary of  the  Commission. 

A  plan  of  work,  readily  suggested  by  circumstances,  was 
marked  out  and  adopted.  The  field  of  investigation  was  divided 
among  the  members  in  a  manner  to  suit  the  individual  interest, 
experience  and  opportunities  for  observation  of  each  one  ;  but  all 
information  gathered  and  conclusions  formed  by  each  were  to  be 
submitted  to  the  others  for  consideration  before  being  adopted  as 
matter  for  the  final  report.  Thus  the  division  of  the  field  of 
investigation  was  not  to  imply  a  divided  responsibility  in  regard 
to  the  recommendations  ultimately  submitted. 

Mr.  Seaver  was  given  manual  training  for  boys  in  high  schools 
and  in  the  older  classes  of  the  grammar  schools.  To  Mrs.  Hop- 
kins was  assigned  for  investigation  the  manual  training  for  both 
boys  and  girls  in  kindergartens,  in  primary  schools  and  in  the 
younger  classes  of  the  grammar  schools  ;  also  manual  training  for 
girls  —  including  particularly  sewing,  dressmaking  and  cooking  — 
in  the  older  classes  of  the  grammar  schools  ;  also  industrial  train- 
ing in  the  so-called  "vacation  schools."  A  consideration  of  the 
whole  subject  as  related  to  labor  interests  and  to  the  social  and 
industrial  questions  of  the  day  was  committed  to  Mr.  McNeill. 

Meetings  of  the  Commission  were  held  for  the  purpose  of 
taking  the  testimony  of  persons  whose  special  knowledge  and 
experience  would  aid  the  Commissioners  in  reaching  the  best 
conclusions.  The  more  interesting  and  important  parts  of  this 
testimony  are  printed  in  the  Appendices  to  this  report.  (See 
Appendices  I,  J  and  K.) 

The  work  of  collectmg  books,  reports  and  other  printed 
matter  relating  to  manual  training ;  of  corresponding  with 
teachers,  officials  and  other  persons  practically  engaged  with 
the  subject ;  and  of  visiting  schools  in  which  the  new  instruc- 
tion could  be  witnessed  in  actual  operation, — was  carried  on, 
so  far  as  the  time  at  the  command  of  the  several  Commis- 
sioners permitted,  during  the  last  four  months  of  the  year 
1891.  But  it  became  evident  before  the  beginning  of  the 
General  Court  in  1892  that  an  adequate  report  could  not  be 
made  in  due  season.      The   Commissioners   felt  unprepared   to 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATIOJS".  5 

meet  even  their  own  moderate  expectations,  —  to  say  nothing 
of  -doing  full  justice  to  the  large  subject  that  had  been 
intrusted  to  their  consideration.  Their  investigations  had  been 
far  too  limited,  and  were  still  unfinished. 

A  sufficient  reason  for  this  failure  to  be  ready  at  the 
appointed  time  with  a  complete  report  was  to  be  found  in  the 
fact  that  the  Commissioners  were  very  busy  persons,  who 
could  command,  aside  from  their  regular  duties,  only  the  odds 
and  ends  of  their  time  for  the  work  of  the  Commission. 

Feeling  that  this  reason  would  be  reqognized,  the  Commis- 
sioners decided  to  make  a  brief  report  of  progress,  and  to 
suggest  that  the  time  for  rendering  a  final  report  be  extended 
one  year.  The  committee  on  education,  to  whom  this  sugges- 
tion was  made,  reported  thereon  favorably,  and  the  following 
resolve  was  passed  :  — 

Besolved,  That  the  commissioners  appointed  to  investigate  the 
existing  systems  of  manual  training  and  industrial  education,  in 
accordance  with  the  provisions  of  chapter  one  hundred  and  six  of 
the  resolves  of  the  year  eighteen  hundred  and  ninety-one,  be 
instructed  to  continue  said  investigation,  and  report  the  results 
thereof,  with  such  recommendations  as  may  seem  best  to  them,  to 
the  next  general  court.  The  commissioners  shall  serve  without 
compensation,  but  for  expenses  actually  incurred  in  the  perform- 
ance of  their  official  duties  the  sum  of  one  thousand  dollars,  in 
addition  to  that  already  appropriated,  shall  be  allowed  and  paid 
out  of  the  treasury  of  the  Commonwealth.  \^Approved  May  17, 
1892. 

The  Commissioners  have  pursued  their  inquiries  down  to  the 
present  time,  and  now  submit  a  final  report,  with  such  recom- 
mendations as  have  seemed  best. 


MANUAL    TKAINLNG   AJSTD 


PART     I. 


By  EDWIN  P.   SEAVER. 


The  Recent  History  of  Manual  Training  and  Industrial 
Education. 

The  two  phrases  "  manual  training  "  and  "  industrial  education  " 
are  often  used  the  one  for  the  other,  as  if  they  denoted  the  same 
thing.  In  a  general  way  they  do  suggest  the  same  thing,  yet 
under  different  aspects,  and  with  some  meaning  attached  to  each 
not  carried  by  the  other.  Thus  the  occupations  of  the  kindergarten 
and  the  hand-craft  taught  to  young  children  in  the  schools  are  not 
most  aptly  described  as  industrial  education ;  nor,  on  the  other 
hand,  would  the  instruction  given  in  a  trade  school  or  in  appren- 
ticeship be  fully  covered  by  the  term  manual  training ;  and  yet 
there  is  in  all  such  instruction,  from  that  given  the  youngest  to 
that  given  the  oldest  pupils,  much  that  is  identical  in  purpose 
and  in  effect. 

Recognizing  this  identity,  we  may  nevertheless  conveniently 
observe  a  certain  distinction  between  the  phrases  in  question ; 
understanding  by  manual  training  any  instruction  in  manual  work 
designed  to  improve  the  intellectual  powers  of  the  worker,  and  by 
industrial  education  the  instruction  necessary  to  produce  the  kinds 
and  degrees  of  skill  needed  for  the  exercise  of  particular  trades  or 
industries. 

These  two  purposes,  the  one  educational  and  the  other  economic, 
are  clearly  not  inconsistent  with  each  other  in  theory,  nor  does 
one  exclude  the  other  in  practice.  Both  can  be  and  are  subserved 
by  the  same  school  or  by  the  same  course  of  instruction.  For 
example,  there  is  good  intellectual  training  to  be  had  in  the  learn- 
ing of  trades  for  purely  industrial  ends,  if  the  methods  of  instruc- 
tion be  logical  and  well  adapted  to  their  purpose.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  industrial  value  of  manual  training  is  not  to  be  ignored 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  7 

merely  because  its  chief  aim  happens  to  be  the  development  of 
general  intellectual  power.  Indeed,  it  may  be  observed  that  most 
of  the  existing  systems  of  manual  instruction  exhibit  a  double  pur- 
pose, partly  educational  and  partly  economic,  the  one  or  the  other 
predominating,  according  to  the  ages  or  other  circumstances  of  the 
pupils.  So,  too,  among  the  arguments  that  have  been  advanced 
in  support  of  manual  training  as  a  branch  of  public  instruction 
there  are  some  which  allege  its  disciplinary  value  and  others 
which  lay  stress  on  its  industrial  utility.  There  is  good  ground 
for  both  these  lines  of  argument,  the  validity  of  neither  impairing 
that  of  the  other. 

The  educational  theory  sought  to  be  realized  through  manual 
training  is  no  new  theory,  nor  is  it  now  for  the  first  time  engaging 
general  attention.  It  has  been  a  theme  with  educational  writers 
from  Luther  and  Comenius  down  to  the  present  time,  and  there 
are  to  be  found  in  the  books  frequent  passages  which  recognize  the 
value  of  manual  work  in  the  education  of  youth,  —  even  of  youth 
whose  situations  in  after  life  would  preclude  their  using  their 
acquired  skill  for  industrial  ends.  Thus  has  the  learning  of  trades 
been  prescribed  in  the  education  of  princes.  Rousseau  would  have 
Emile  learn  a  trade,  that  his  pupil  might  acquire  a  more  valid  title 
of  nobility  than  any  he  might  inherit  from  ancestors.  Pestalozzi 
resorted  to  manual  training  with  the  vagabond  children  he  collected 
in  his  schools,  believing  it  to  be  one  important  means  of  educating 
the  poorer  classes.  Locke,  in  writing  of  the  education  of  gentle- 
men's sons,  pointed  out  some  practical  advantages  to  be  gained 
from  manual  work  by  boys  passing  through  the  usual  course  of 
book  instruction  ;  the  chief  of  which  were  the  promotion  of  bodily 
health  by  physical  exercise  and  the  mental  relaxation  brought 
about  by  change  of  employment.  But  in  the  writings  of  Froebel 
may  be  found  the  most  satisfactory  statement  of  the  reasons  for 
regarding  manual  training  as  an  essential  factor  in  the  right  edu- 
cation of  all  children. 

Froebel's  idea  was  that  of  a  full,  all-sided  education,  reaching 
every  element  of  the  child's  being,  utilizing  every  wholesome 
influence  from  his  surroundings,  and  leading  him  ultimately  to 
clear  knowledge  and  conscious  efficiency  in  all  relations  of  life. 


8  MAJSrUAL    TKAINESTG   AND 

For  this  purpose  all  ranges  of  thought  and  feeling  were  to  be 
opened,  and  all  impulses  to  activity  brought  under  the  intelligent 
and  orderly  control  of  the  will.  Even  the  spontaneous  play  of 
childhood  might  under  proper  guidance  accomplish  definite  edu- 
cational results.  Hence  the  kindergarten,  the  games  and  occupa- 
tions of  which  early  brought  the  child  into  intelligent  sympathy 
with  the  busy  human  life  going  on  around  him.  Later  came 
positive  instruction  in  the  occupations  of  the  household,  the 
garden  or  the  field,  and  in  the  trades  of  the  workshops.  The 
instructor  in  these  things  might  be  either  the  parent  or  the 
school  teacher,  and  the  place  might  be  at  home  or  in  school ; 
but  in  either  case  the  process  and  the  result  were  to  be  counted  as 
educational,  no  less  than  were  the  study  and  mastery  of  book 
knowledge  to  be  so  counted.  And  the  reason,  stated  in  Froebel's 
words,  was  that  "lessons  through  and  by  work,  through  and 
from  life,  are  by  far  the  most  impressive  and  intelligible,  and 
most  continuously  and  intensely  progressive  both  in  themselves 
and  in  their  effect  on  the  learner.  Notwithstanding  this,  children 
—  mankind,  indeed  —  are  at  present  too  much  and  too  variously 
concerned  with  aimless  and  purposeless  pursuits,  and  too  little 
with  work.  Children  and  parents  consider  the  activity  of  actual 
work  so  much  to  their  disadvantage,  and  so  unimportant  for 
their  future  conditions  in  life,  that  educational  institutions  should 
make  it  one  of  their  most  constant  endeavors  to  dispel  this 
delusion.  The  domestic  and  scholastic  education  of  our  time 
leads  children  to  indolence  and  laziness  ;  a  vast  amount  of  human 
power  remains  undeveloped  and  is  lost.  It  would  be  a  most 
wholesome  arrangement  in  schools  to  establish  actual  working 
hours  similar  to  existing  study  hours  ;  and  it  will  surely  come  to 
this."* 

Again  in  another  place  he  says  :  "  For  boys  of  this  age  should 
have  some  definite  domestic  duties  to  perform.  They  might  even 
receive  regular  instruction  fi'om  mechanics  or  farmers,  such  as 
has  been  frequently  given  by  fathers  inspired  by  vigorous  and 

*  Quoted  from  "  The  Education  of  Man,"  by  Friedrich  Froebel,  translated  by  W. 
N.  Hailmann,  New  York,  1887.  The  original  book  was  first  published  in  1826.  It 
was  the  first  volume  of  a  proposed  work  which  was  never  finished. 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUOATIO'Sr.  9 

active  natural  insight.  ...  It  is  very  desirable  that  such  boys 
should  devote  daily  at  least  one  or  two  hours  to  some  definite 
external  pursuit,  some  externally  productive  work.  It  is  surely 
one  of  the  greatest  faults  of  our  current  school  arrangements, 
especially  of  the  so-called  Latin  and  high  schools,  that  the  pupils 
are  wholly  debarred  from  outwardly  productive  work.  It  is  futile 
to  object  that  the  boy  at  this  age,  if  he  is  to  reach  a  certain 
degree  of  skill  and  insight,  ought  to  direct  his  whole  strength 
to  the  learning  of  words,  to  verbal  instruction,  to  intellectual 
culture.  On  the  contrary,  genuine  experience  shows  that  ex- 
ternal, physical,  productive  activity  interspersed  in  intellectual 
work  strengthens  not  only  the  body  but  in  a  very  marked  degree 
the  mind  in  its  various  phases  of  development,  so  that  the  mind, 
after  such  a  refreshing  work-bath  (I  can  find  no  better  name), 
enters  upon  its  intellectual  pursuits  with  new  vigor  and  life."  * 

Froebel  enumerates  the  subjects  of  the  educational  life  of  home 
and  school,  and  groups  them  *'  in  accordance  with  the  inner  needs 
of  boyhood  into  subjects  (a)  of  the  more  quiet,  calm,  inner  life  ; 
(&)  of  the  more  receptive,  intro-active  life ;  (c)  of  the  more 
expressive  outwardly  formative  life."  f  It  is  this  last  and  not 
least  important  phase  of  boyhood  that  manual  training  provides 
for.  To  neglect  this,  as  is  too  often  done,  is  to  leave  the 
education  of  boyhood  one-sided  and  incomplete. 

The  practical  realization  of  Froebel's  educational  ideas  in  the 
kindergarten  has  made  his  name  well  known  in  all  enlightened 
nations.  What  is  not  so  well  known,  perhaps,  is  the  fact  that  to 
the  influence  of  his  writings  is  due  the  introduction  of  hand-craft 
in  the  elementary  schools  of  Finland  and  Sweden,  where  it  is 
known  as  slojd  (sloyd),  and  whence,  of  late,  it  has  spread  to  Den- 
mark, Belgium,  Germany,  Austria,  Switzerland,  England  and  the 
United  States. 

Had  Froebel  been  permitted  to  finish  his  great  work,  "  The 
Education  of  Man,"  it  is  highly  probable  that  the  education  of 
boyhood  and  of  youth  would  have  been  worked  out  by  him  with 
the  same  attention  to  details  and  the  same  practical  wisdom  which 

*  "  The  Education  of  Man,"  page  236.      t  "  The  Education  of  Man,"  page  237. 


10  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

characterized  his  works  on  the  kindergarten  ;  and  that,  con- 
sequently, his  authority  might  have  become  no  less  commanding 
for  the  later  than  it  has  become  for  the  earlier  years  of  the  educa- 
tional period  of  life.  But  even  in  his  unfinished  work  we  may  find 
the  whole  substance  of  the  doctrine  which  supports  the  modern 
demand  for  manual  training  as  a  purely  disciplinary  pursuit. 

Briefly  stated,  hia  doctrine  is  that  the  human  mind  is  creative  as 
well  as  acquisitive  ;  that  the  child's  mind  cannot  be  developed 
according  to  the  laws  of  its  growth  unless  the  creative  activities 
be  brought  under  systematic  training  in  at  least  equal  measure 
with  the  acquisitive  powers  ;  and  that  both  disciplines  should  be 
continuous  from  the  earliest  to  the  latest  stage  of  education.  A 
scheme  of  education  which  concerns  itself  with  the  acquisitive 
powers  merely —  and  this  has  been  the  usual  scheme  of  the  schools 
hitherto  —  is  fatally  one-sided  and  partial.  The  needed  reform 
consists  in  providing  adequately  for  the  creative  activities.  There- 
fore there  should  always  be  among  the  disciplines  of  school  and 
home  systematic  exercises  in  the  translation  of  thought  into 
action,  of  inner  mental  ideas  into  outward  material  representa- 
tions. For,  in  the  language  of  Froebel,  "  Man  is  developed  and 
cultured  toward  the  fulfilment  of  his  destiny  and  mission,  and  is 
to  be  valued,  even  in  boyhood,  not  only  by  what  he  receives  and 
absorbs  from  without,  but  much  more  by  what  he  puts  out  and  un- 
folds from  himself.  Experience  and  histor}^,  too,  teach  that  men 
truly  and  effectively  promote  human  welfare  much  more  by  what 
they  put  forth  from  themselves  than  by  what  they  may  have 
acquired.  Every  one  knows  that  those  who  truly  teach  gain 
steadily  in  knowledge  and  insight ;  similarly,  every  one.  knows, 
for  Nature  herself  teaches  this,  that  the  use  of  a  force  enhances 
and  intensifies  the  force.  Again,  to  learn  a  thing  in  life  and 
through  doing  is  much  more  developing,  cultivating  and  strength- 
ening than  to  learn  it  merely  through  the  verbal  communication  of 
Ideas.  Similarly,  plastic  material  representation  in  life  and 
through  doing,  united  with  thought  and  speech,  is  by  far  more 
developing  and  cultivating  than  the  merely  verbal  representation 
of  ideas."  * 

*  "  The  Education  of  Man,"  page  278. 


IN^DUSTKIAL   EDUCATION.  11 

To  Froebel's  doctrine  and  the  zeal  of  his  followers  in  applying  it 
we  undoubtedly  owe  manual  training  as  we  now  have  it  in  the  kin- 
dergarten and  the  primary  schools.  To  the  same  cause  may  be 
attributed  the  efforts  now  making  to  extend  manual  training,  by 
means  of  the  Swedish  sloyd  or  other  similar  exercises,  upwards 
toward  the  high  school.  Indeed,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  Froebel's 
principles,  carried  to  the  full  extent  of  their  application,  would 
bring  manual  training  not  only  up  to  the  high  school  but  through 
it  and  even  beyond.  Nevertheless,  we  must  look  elsewhere  for  the 
immediate  causes  of  the  welcome  which  manual  training,  as  a  dis- 
cipline for  boys  of  high-school  age,  has  received  of  late  years  in 
the  United  States. 

The  manual  training  which  has  been  given  place  in  our  boys' 
high  schools  during  the  last  twelve  or  fifteen  years  has  a  definite 
character  and  purpose,  because  originally  it  was  designed  to  meet 
a  specific  educational  want.  It  may  be  described  as  a  course  of  in- 
struction in  the  mechanic  arts;  and  it  is  to  be  distinguished  on  the 
one  hand  from  apprenticeship  and  trade-school  instruction,  and  on 
the  other  hand  from  the  manual  training  of  young  children.  It 
does  not  aim  at  the  teaching  of  any  one  trade,  nor  does  it  impart 
a  merely  superficial  acquaintance  with  many  trades  ;  but  it  gives 
a  thorough  course  of  instruction,  both  theoretical  and  practical,  in 
the  principal  operations  of  all  mechanical  trades.  These  prma- 
pal  operations  of  the  mechanical  trades  are  what  the  term  mechanic 
arts  denotes.  These  are  few,  while  the  trades  in  which  they  find 
their  applications  are  many;  therefore  the  "mechanic  arts,"  and 
not  "  trades,"  are  the  proper  foundation  for  a  course  of  instruc- 
tion having  an  educational  purpose.  Neither  is  such  a  course 
adapted  to  the  strength  of  boys  under  the  high-school  age, — 
fourteen  or  fifteen  years,  —  because  it  is  the  work  of  men,  and  was 
designed  for  the  instruction  of  young  men. 

The  young  men  for  whom  this  method  of  instruction  in  the 
mechanic  arts  was  first  devised  were  students  in  civil  and  mechan- 
ical engineering.  These  students  needed  objective  practical 
instruction  in  the  principles  of  the  trades  with  which  as  engineers 
they  would  have  to  do.  The  abstract  and  theoretical  instruction 
usually  given  was  insufficient,  and  often  left  the  engineer  in  an 


12  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

awkward  position  of  inferiority  relatively  to  the  skilled  workmen 
under  his  direction.  To  attempt  to  gain  this  practical  knowledge 
by  learning  all  the  trades  in  the  ordinary  way  of  apprenticeship 
would  consume  far  too  much  time,  and  might,  as  experience  had 
shown,  leave  the  principles  obscured  in  multitudinous  and  com- 
plicated details.  "What  needed  to  be  done  was  just  what  had  been 
done  with  other  arts  and  sciences  in  order  to  make  them  fit 
subjects  for  intellectual  discipline  ;  namely,  to  separate  principles 
from  details,  basing  instruction  exclusively  on  the  principles,  and 
retaining  only  enough  of  the  details  to  serve  the  purposes  of 
illustration.  To  do  this  and  at  the  same  time  to  make  the  in- 
struction objective  and  practical  was  nothing  more  nor  less  than 
applying  to  the  mechanic  arts  the  laboratory  (workshop)  method 
of  instruction,  —  a  method  which  has  revolutionized  instruction 
in  chemistry,  physics  and  other  sciences  within  the  last  forty 
years. 

It  was  in  the  Imperial  Technical  School  at  Moscow,  Russia, 
that  this  laboratory  method  of  instruction  was  first  successfully 
applied  to  the  mechanic  arts.  "  In  1868,"  says  M.  Victor  Della- 
Vos,  the  director,  "  the  school  council  considered  it  indispensable, 
in  order  to  secure  the  systematical  teaching  of  elementary  practi- 
cal work,  as  well  as  for  the  more  convenient  supervision  of  the 
pupils  while  practically  employed,  to  separate  entirely  the  school 
workshops  from  the  mechanical  works  in  which  the  orders  from 
private  individuals  are  executed,  admitting  pupils  to  the  latter 
only  when  they  have  perfectly  acquired  the  principles  of  practical 
labor.  By  the  separation  alone  of  the  school  workshops  from  the 
mechanical  works,  however,  the  principal  aim  was  far  from  being 
attained.  It  was  found  necessary  to  work  out  such  a  method  of 
teaching  the  elementary  principles  of  mechanical  art  as,  firstly, 
should  demand  the  least  possible  length  of  time  for  their  acquire- 
ment ;  secondly,  should  increase  the  facility  of  the  supervision  of 
the  gradationary  employment  of  the  pupils  ;  thirdly,  should  impart 
to  the  study  itself  of  practical  work  the  character  of  a  sound 
systematical  acquirement  of  knowledge  ;  and,  fourthly  and  lastly, 
should  facilitate  the  demonstration  of  the  progress  of  every  pupil 
at   every    stated   time.   ...     In  the  year   1870,   at   the   exhibi- 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION.  13 

tion  of  manufacturers  at  St.  Petersburg,  the  school  exhibited  its 
method  of  teaching  mechanical  arts,  and  from  that  time  they  have 
been  introduced  into  all  the  technical  schools  of  Russia.  .  .  . 
And  now  [at  the  Paris  Exposition  in  1878]  we  present  our  sys- 
tem of  instruction,  not  as  a  project,  but  as  an  accomplished  fact, 
confirmed  by  a  long  experience  of  ten  years  of  success  in  its 
results."  * 

Two  years  before  the  Paris  Exposition,  at  Philadelphia  in 
1876,  M.  Delia- Vos  had  exhibited  substantially  the  same  system 
of  mechanic  arts  instruction,  showing  the  tools  and  illustrating 
the  exercises  by  complete  series  of  students'  shop  work.  There 
were  men  with  receptive  minds  at  Philadelphia,  for  in  America 
as  well  as  in  Russia  had  been  felt  the  want  of  a  scientific 
method  of  teaching  the  mechanic  arts  in  technological  schools. 
Among  others.  Prof.  John  D.  Runkle,  at  that  time  president 
of  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  saw  and  studied 
this  Russian  exhibit.  Immediately  on  his  return  home  he 
recommended  to  the  corporation  of  the  Institute  that  the 
courses  in  civil  and  mechanical  engineering  in  that  institution 
be  completed  by  adding  to  existing  provisions  a  series  of 
instruction  shops,  in  which  should  be  taught  all  the  mechanic 
arts  which  young  engineers  needed  to  learn.  By  vote  of  the 
corporation,  Aug.  17,  1876,  the  department  of  the  Institute 
since  known  as  the  School  of  Mechanic  Arts  was  established. 
The  same  step  was  taken  a  little  later,  June  6,  1879,  by 
"Washington  University  in  St.  Louis,  at  the  suggestion  of  Prof. 
C.  M.  "Woodward  of  the  engineering  department  in  that  insti- 
tution. These  two  examples  were  soon  followed  by  other 
scientific  and  technological  schools  in  different  parts  of  the 
country.  Many  of  these  latter  institutions  had  recently  come 
into  existence  in  the  several  States  through  the  aid  afforded  by 
the  land  grant  act  of  Congress,  passed  in  the  year  1862,  for  the 

*  Quoted  from  a  valuable  paper  by  Prof.  John  D.  Runkle,  on  "The  Manual 
Element  in  Education,"  printed  in  the  forty -fifth  annual  report  of  the  Massachusetts 
Board  of  Education,  page  138.  This  paper  gives  a  full  description  of  the  Mechanic 
Arts  School  in  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology ;  also  some  account  of  the 
Imperial  Technical  School  at  Moscow,  and  of  some  other  European  schools  of  a 
similar  character. 


14  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

purpose  of  aiding  the  States  to  establisli  colleges  ia  which  should 
be  taught  agriculture,  the  mechanic  arts  and  military  drill.  Speak- 
ing generally,  the  instruction  in  agriculture  had  been  carried  on  in 
these  institutions  with  encouraging  success  ;  but  the  same  could 
hardly  be  said  of  the  instruction  in  the  mechanic  arts.  This 
had  not  emancipated  itself  from  bondage  to  details,  had  not 
advanced  beyond  miscellaneous  trade  learning.  The  Russian 
method  of  shop  instruction  came,  therefore,  as  a  promising  solu- 
tion of  a  most  troublesome  problem.  As  such  it  has  been 
welcomed  and  appreciated  ;  and  it  has  spread  widely  among  the 
technological  and  scientific  schools  (including  the  agricultural 
colleges)  of  the  country  since  its  first  inti'oduction  at  Boston  and 
at  St.  Louis.* 

This  first  step  was  followed  soon  by  a  second.  The  shop  in- 
struction designed  for  young  men,  students  of  engineering,  was  at 
once  seen  to  be  well  suited  to  the  powers,  mental  and  physical,  of 
high-school  boys.  Moreover,  the  new  discipline,  aside  from  its 
special  advantages  in  the  technical  education  of  engineers,  was 
believed  to  possess  great  value  as  an  element  in  general  education. 
By  uniting  with  it  a  thorough  course  in  free-hand  and  mechanical 
drawing  and  good  courses  in  language   and  in  science,    a  very 


*  If  it  were  the  purpose  of  this  report  to  give  a  full  history  of  mechanic  arts  in- 
struction in  the  higher  educational  institutions  of  this  country,  ample  notice  would 
be  taken  of  the  Worcester  Polytechnic  Institute.  In  this  institution  has  been  carried 
on  for  many  years  with  success  a  system  of  mechanic  arts  instruction  which  differs 
in  some  important  particulars  from  that  above  referred  to  as  the  Russian  shop 
instruction.  In  the  first  place,  all  the  work  of  the  students,  save  a  few  preliminary 
exercises,  is  upon  things  intended  for  sale  in  the  market.  A  knowledge  that  his 
work  is  to  be  brought  to  the  merciless  test  of  commercial  valuation  acts  upon  the 
student  as  a  strong  and  wholesome  stimulus.  In  the  second  place,  the  students  are 
given  only  the  operations,  the  tools  and  the  machinery  which  would  be  found  in  the 
best  commercial  machine  shops  of  the  present  daj'.  The  following  extract  from  the 
last  annual  catalogue  presents  these  points  clearly :  ^ 

"  The  buildings  contain  engine  room,  engine  and  boilers,  blacksmith  shop,  tool 
room,  draughting  room,  pamting  and  finishing  room,  and  large  work  rooms,  for 
both  wood  and  metals,  fully  equipped  with  tools  and  machinery.  Here  the  students 
in  mechanical  engineering  spend  their  practice  hours  as  apprentices,  and  it  is  found 
that  the  graduates  in  this  department  are  as  skilful  mechanics  as  ordinary  appren- 
tices who  have  served  three  years  in  a  shop,  and  they  have  in  addition  the  advantage 
of  a  solid  education.    This  result  is  attained  under  the  following  conditions  :  — 

"  1.  These  shops  are  organized  and  managed  as  a  manufacturing  establishment, 
and  a  great  variety  of  work  is  always  in  process  of  construction,  in  order  that  the 
student  may  constantly  have  the  wholesome  atmospliere  of  real  business.  This, 
with  a  determination  on  the  part  of  the  superintendent  to  maintain  a  high  standard 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATIOI^.  15 

desirable  high-school  curriculum  could  be  marked  out  which  should 
prepare  boys  either  for  higher  courses  in  science  and  technology 
or  for  the  general  business  of  life.  Both  the  School  of  Mechanic 
Arts  in  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology  and  the 
Manual  Training  School  in  "Washington  University  early  began  to 
receive  boys  of  high-school  age  for  the  purpose  of  demonstrating 
the  value  of  such  a  curriculum.  The  Institute  of  Technology, 
however,  discontinued  its  experiment  after  a  few  years,  not 
because  it  was  thought  to  have  failed,  but  because  the  trustees 
were  convinced  that  high-school  instruction  in  any  form  was  a 
matter  quite  outside  the  range  of  their  chartered  powers.  Besides, 
had  the  case  been  otherwise,  there  were  not  likely  to  be  many 
parents  who  would  willingly  pay  a  high  tuition  fee,  one  hundred 
and  fifty  dollars  a  year,  in  a  city  where  excellent  high-school 
instruction  could  be  had  for  nothing.  Of  late,  therefore,  the 
School  of  Mechanic  Arts  has  been  held  strictly  to  its  original 
purpose,  that  of  giving  workshop  instruction  to  students  of 
engineering. 

Not  so  with  the  Manual  Training  School  at  St.  Louis.  That 
was  established  on  an  independent  basis  ;  and  it  has  gone  on  with 
increasing  success,  as  a  boys'  high  school  of  the  new  type,  pre- 

of  workmanship,  has  made  the  progress  of  the  students  in  the  best  methods  of  con- 
struction botli  rapid  and  thorough,  and  has  proved  the  most  effective  means  for 
giving  them  an  exact  knowledge  of  shop  practice. 

"  2.  The  work  of  each  student  is  done  under  the  personal  supervision  and  direc- 
tion of  a  skilled  workman,  and  with  the  advantage  of  the  best  obtainable  tools  and 
machinery ;  for  it  is  as  true  in  handicraft  as  in  the  training  of  the  intellect  that  the 
best  tools  and  appliances  are  not  too  good  in  instruction. 

"  3.  Every  student  receives  training  in  drawing  during  the  entire  coiirse.  In  this 
way  exact  knowledge  of  form  and  proportion  is  secured,  and  the  students  make  more 
intelligent  and  satisfactory  progress  in  the  shop  than  is  possible  for  those  who  have 
not  had  advantage  of  this  training.  Besides  the  general  training  in  free-hand  and 
instrumental  drawing,  students  in  this  department  have  practice  during  senior  year 
in  making  working  drawings  of  machines,  and  determining  the  strength,  dimensions 
and  proper  proportions  of  machines  from  numerical  specifications. 

"4.  The  weekly  practice  is  distributed  so  as  to  occupy  five  hours  each  of  two 
days.  Each  student  is  required  to  render  a  strict  account  of  these  hours.  The  time 
thus  spent  serves  the  double  purpose  of  practice  and  exercise. 

"  5.  Each  student  advances  as  fast  as  possible,  unchecked  by  the  difficulties  of 
his  neighbors,  or  any  business  necessity  of  the  shop." 

It  is  still  a  mooted  question  whether  the  products  of  mechanic  arts  instruction 
should  be  broken  up  for  kindling  wood  and  junk,  as  is  usual  when  they  are  mere 
exercises,  or  should  be  sold  in  the  market.  The  experience  at  "Worcester  seems 
strongly  to  support  the  latter  conclusion. 


16  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

paring  its  pupils  not  only  for  higher  courses  in  science  and  tech- 
nology, but  also  for  commercial  and  industrial  pursuits.  It  has 
become  the  model  for  many  similar  schools  in  all  parts  of  the 
country.  Its  general  character  and  purpose  are  set  forth  in  the 
following  language,  quoted  from  the  ordinance  by  which  it  was 
established:  "Its  object  shall  be  instruction  in  mathematics, 
drawing,  and  the  English  branches  of  a  high-school  course,  and 
instruction  and  practice  in  the  use  of  tools.  The  tool  instruction, 
as  at  present  contemplated,  shall  include  carpentry,  wood-turning, 
pattern-making,  iron  chipping  and  filing,  forge  work,  brazing  and 
soldering,  the  use  of  machine-shop  tools,  and  such  other  instruc- 
tion of  a  similar  character  as  may  be  deemed  advisable  to  add  to 
the  foregoing  from  time  to  time.  The  students  will  divide  their 
working  hours  as  nearly  as  possible  equally  between  mental  and 
manual  exercises.  They  shall  be  admitted  on  examination,  at  not 
less  than  fourteen  years  of  age,  and  the  course  shall  continue  three 
years." 

The  number  of  schools  which  have  been  established  on  this  plan 
of  instruction  or  have  changed  to  this  plan  by  adding  to  their 
former  courses  the  mechanic  arts  course  has  become  large  during 
the  last  ten  years,  and  is  still  increasing.  Indeed,  the  rapid  mul- 
tiplication of  such  schools  constitutes  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
educational  phenomena  of  the  present  time.  No  complete  list  of 
these  schools  has  been  made ;  but  we  shall  here  mention  and 
briefly  describe  some  of  the  more  important  ones. 

In  January,  1884,  the  Commercial  Club  of  Chicago  established 
and  endowed  the  Chicago  Manual  Training  School.  This  school, 
like  its  St.  Louis  prototype,  receives  substantial  tuition  fees  from 
its  students  ;  but,  unlike  it,  has  no  connection  with  a  university. 
Some  of  its  graduates  pass  to  higher  institutions,  and  some  into 
commercial  or  industrial  life.  The  school  has  flourished  from  the 
beginning ;  and  its  success  has  led  to  the  establishment  of  other 
schools  of  the  same  kind  in  Chicago,  one  by  the  Board  of  Educa- 
tion as  a  public  high  school,  another  by  the  wealthy  Hebrews  for 
boys  of  their  race,  and  still  another  by  Mr.  Armour. 

While  the  merchants  of  Chicago  were  taking  action  in  that  city, 
the  same  year  and   month,  January,   1884,   the   city  council  of 


ESTDUSTKIAL    EDUCATIOISr.  17 

Baltimore  established  the  Baltimore  Manual  Training  School. 
This  is  a  free  public  school,  supported  wholly  by  public  taxation, 
and  is  the  earliest  school  of  its  kind  in  America. 

In  the  same  year,  too,  1884,  the  city  of  Toledo  made  use  of  a 
certain  trust  fund  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  manual  training 
in  connection  with  the  public  high  school  in  that  city.  A  large 
wing  was  added  to  the  high-school  building,  containing  instruction 
shops  not  only  for  boys  to  work  in  wood  and  metals  at  bench  and 
machine,  but  also  for  girls  to  work  at  wood-carving,  cooking, 
sewing  and  dressmaking.  This  seems  to  be  the  earliest  instance 
of  industrial  education  for  girls  in  a  public  high  school.  The 
boys  and  girls  who  took  the  instruction  in  these  new  subjects  took 
it  as  a  clear  addition  to  their  regular  high  school  work  ;  but  they 
did  it  with  enthusiasm,  and  the  effect  was  to  interest  them  more 
than  formerly  in  the  school.  Observation  through  several  years 
has  ascertained  the  fact  that  many  boys  and  girls  remain  in  school, 
who,  without  opportunities  for  such  instruction,  would  have 
dropped  out.  The  girls  shared  with  the  boys  the  work  in  drawing, 
in  wood-carving  and  in  light  joinery,  but  later  in  the  courses  they 
separated. 

The  Cleveland  Manual  Training  School  originated  in  a  small 
class  in  carpentry,  started  in  February,  1885,  by  a  teacher  of 
physics  in  the  Cleveland  High  School,  Mr.  Newton  M.  Anderson, 
for  the  benefit  of  some  of  his  pupils  in  the  high  school.  The 
time  taken  was  in  the  afternoon,  and  the  place  was  a  barn. 
"  Through  the  diligence  and  enthusiasm  of  these  boys,  this  little 
school  and  the  value  of  manual  training  were  brought  to  the  notice 
of  some  of  the  business  men  of  the  city.  One  or  two  meetings 
were  held  at  which  the  question  of  the  establishment  of  a  manual 
training  school  in  Cleveland  was  thoroughly  discussed.  It  was 
decided  to  form  a  stock  company  with  a  capital  of  twenty-five 
thousand  dollars,  with  which  money  to  erect  and  equip  a  build- 
ing, and  to  charge  a  tuition  fee  just  sufficient  to  cover  running 
expenses."  This  building  was  opened  in  1886,  and  pupils  came 
there  from  the  high  schools  of  Cleveland.  This  arrangement  con- 
tinued till  1892,  and  the  school  was  known  as  the  Cleveland 
Manual  Training  School.       It  is  now  discontinued,  because  the 


18  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

Board  of  Education  of  Cleveland,  having  permanently  established 
manual  training  courses  in  both  the  high  schools  of  that  city,  has 
no  further  use  for  temporary  accommodations.  Meanwhile,  Mr. 
Anderson  has  secured  the  endowment  for  and  established  a  large 
and  prospering  private  institution  in  Cleveland,  named  the  Uni- 
versity School.  This  school  combines  the  features  of  a  classical 
high  school  and  of  a  manual  training  school,  and  is  designed  to 
give  the  broadest  possible  education  to  its  pupils.  It  constitutes 
one  of  the  most  noteworthy  and  interesting  experiments  yet  made 
in  the  new  higher  education  of  boys. 

The  Philadelphia  Manual  Training  School,  established  in  1885, 
is,  like  the  one  at  Baltimore,  a  free  public  high  school,  supported 
wholly  by  the  public  taxes.  It  has  complete  courses  in  the 
mechanic  arts,  in  drawing  and.  in  the  usual  book  studies  of  a 
high  school.  The  authorities  in  Philadelphia  believed  it  was 
better  to  set  up  a  separate  and  independent  school  of  this  kind 
than  to  add  courses  in  the  mechanic  arts  to  the  work  of  existing 
high  schools.  That  this  school  has  successfully  met  an  actual 
want  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  Philadelphia  has  recently 
(1892)  established  a  similar  school  in  another  quarter  of  that 
city. 

Girard  College  early  adopted  mechanic  arts  instruction,  on  a 
plan  devised  for  that  institution  by  Professor  Runkle.  The 
motive  was  to  provide  a  substitute  for  apprenticeship,  which  had 
so  far  fallen  into  disuse  in  Philadelphia  that  it  had  become  exceed- 
ingly difficult  for  the  college  authorities  to  place  their  boys  where 
they  might  learn  mechanical  trades.  The  trustees  of  Girard  Col- 
lege declare  in  one  of  their  reports  that  the  Russian  system  of 
shop  instruction  came  to  them  as  a  most  welcome  and  satisfactory 
solution  of  a  very  embarrassing  problem.* 

The  magnitude  of  the  difficulty  will  be  the  more  readily  appre- 
ciated when  we  remember  that  the    college   has   enrolled  twelve 


*  "  Our  introduction  of  this  mechanical  instruction  seems  almost  providential,  in 
view  of  the  scarceness  of  apprenticeships.  Up  to  almost  the  end  of  the  year  1884 
metal  work  alone  was  taught,  and  during  that  year  onlj'  about  one-third  of  the  boys 
who  left  college  entered  into  mechanical  pursuits  ;  but  of  those  who  left  during  the 
year  1885,  and  since  instruction  in  ordinar3'  wood  work  and  turning  has  been  mtro- 
duced,  two-thirds  have  obtained  work  in  mechanical  occupation." 


INDUSTRIAL  educatio:n^.  19 

hundred  or  more  boys,  ranging  in  age  from  ten  to  eighteen ;  and 
that  boys  on  reaching  the  age  of  eighteen  are  not  permitted  by 
the  charter  to  remain  longer  in  college,  but  must  be  "  bound  out 
as  apprentices."  The  effectiveness  of  the  mechanic  arts  instruc- 
tion now  given  in  Girard  College  may  be  estimated  from  the  fact, 
which  we  have  taken  pains  to  verify,  that  boys  of  eighteen  who 
have  had  that  instruction  ten  hours  a  week  for  two  years  are, 
as  a  rule,  credited  with  two  full  years  of  time  when  they  enter 
the  machine  shops  at  Philadelphia;  so  that  they  are  placed  oh 
the  same  level  with  other  boys  who  have  worked  in  the  shops  two 
years  the  full  time,  say  fifty  hours  a  week.  Thus  it  appears  that 
the  instruction  of  the  mechanic  arts  school  ten  liours  a  week  is 
equally  effective  with  the  instruction  obtained  in  the  ordinary 
apprenticeship  of  the  shops  Jlfty  liours  a  toeek.  In  other  words, 
the  mechanic  arts  school  is  better  than  apprenticeship  in  the 
shops  in  the  ratio  oijive  to  one.  And  this  is  the  judgment,  not 
of  theorists  nor  of  sentimentalists,  but  of  hard-headed  business 
men. 

Many  of  the  promoters  of  manual  training  for  boys  have  been 
at  pains  to  emphasize  the  fact  tliat  their  schools  do  not  teach 
trades.  "While  this  is  true,  it  is  also  true  that  their  schools  do 
bring  their  pupils  a  long  way  on  towards  the  learning  of  many 
trades.  And  this  is  because  the  instruction  is  based  on  the 
principles  underlying  the  trades,  not  on  the  details  of  the  tirades 
themselves.  It  is  the  result  of  applying  the  science  of  education 
to  the  learning  of  trades. 

Another  school  of  the  St.  Louis  type  is  the  Cincinnati  Technical 
School,  founded  in  1886  ;  another,  the  Manual  Training  School  of 
Denver  University  ;  and  still  another,  the  Tulane  High  School, 
connected  with  Tulane  University  in  New  Orleans.  Of  the  Balti- 
more and  Philadelphia  type  are  schools  in  "Wilmington,  Del.,  and 
in  Providence,  R.  I. 

The  list  of  cities  in  which  manual  training  has  been  added  to 
the  work  of  existing  high  schools  includes  New  York,  Albany, 
Eau  Claire,  Omaha,  Carson  City,  "Washington,  Indianapolis,  St. 
Paul,  Minneapolis  and  many  others. 

In   Massachusetts   we   have   the   Manual    Training    School   at 


20  MANUAL   TRAINING   AND 

Cambridge,  the  gift  of  Mr.  Frederick  H.  Rindge  of  California, 
who  offered  to  his  native  city  "  an  industrial  school  building  ready 
for  use,  together  with  a  site  for  the  same."  This  school,  like  that 
in  Toledo  and  the  first  one  in  Cleveland,  is  an  auxiliary  to  the 
public  high  school,  receiving  pupils  therefrom  at  stated  hours  for 
instruction  in  the  mechanic  arts  and  in  drawing,  but  itself  giving 
no  instruction  in  book  studies.  The  high  schools  in  Fall  River 
and  in  Springfield  have  established  manual  training  in  their 
courses. 

Among  the  proposed  high  schools  of  the  new  kind  may  be 
mentioned  the  Mechanic  Arts  High  School  in  Boston,  the  building 
for  which  is  approaching  completion,*  and  a  new  high  school  in 
Brookline,  which,  when  organized,  will  afford  an  opportunity  for 
the  extension  of  the  instruction  now  going  on  in  the  William  H. 
Lincoln  Grammar  School  in  that  town. 

In  all  the  schools  thus  far  enumerated  the  course  of  instruction 
for  the  boys  is  substantially  the  same,  namely,  joinery,  wood- 
turning,  wood-carving,  pattern-making,  moulding,  casting,  forg- 
ing, chipping,  filing  and  machine-shop  practice,  together  with 
drawing  and  the  book  work  of  the  ordinary  high-school   course. 

This  course,  however,  should  be  described  in  minute  detail, 
with  suggestions  as  to  the  cost  of  necessary  tools  and  equipment, 
if,  as  is  proposed,  it  is  to  be  made  the  basis  of  recommendations 
in  this  report.  And  this  is  the  place  in  the  report  for  such  a 
description.  It  happens,  however,  that  the  writer  was  sent  four 
years  ago  by  the  school  committee  of  Boston  to  visit  and  carefully 
inspect  most  of  the  schools  named  above,  that  he  might  the  better 
prepare  himself  to  draw  up  a  course  of  instruction  and  a  plan  of 
building  and  equipment  for  the  proposed  Mechanic  Arts  High 
School  in  that  city.  He  is  convinced  that  he  could  hardly  do  this 
work  better  now  than  he  did  it  then.  Therefore  his  "  Plan  for  a 
Mechanic  Arts  High  School,"  taken  from  the  Boston  school  docu- 
ments, has  been  placed  in  the  Appendix  to  this  report  for  the 
information  of  readers  who  may  desire  knowledge  of  the  minute 
details  of  the  subject.     (See  Appendix  A.)      The  reader  is  also 

*  For  the  plans  and  a  perspective  view  of  this  building,  see  Appendix  A. 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  21 

referred  to  the  paper  of  Professor  Runkle,  already  quoted  from, 
in  the  forty-fifth  annual  report  of  the  Massachusetts  Board  of 
Education,  where  will  be  found  (pages  146-170)  a  full  description 
with  illustrations  of  the  shop  exercises  used  in  the  School  of 
Mechanic  Arts  in  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. 
For  wood-cuts  illustrating  the  exercises  used  in  the  St.  Louis 
Manual  Training  School,  see  "Woodward's  "Manual  Training 
School."  * 

For  a  fully  illustrated  course  of  lessons  in  wood-work  and  in 
iron- work  at  bench  and  at  machine,  as  given  in  the  Pennsylvania 
State  College,  see  the  very  valuable  report  of  the  Industrial  Edu- 
cation Commission  to  the  Legislature  of  Pennsylvania,  1889. 

We  have  seen  that  manual  training  has  a  recognized  place  in 
the  kindergarten,  and  that  efforts  more  or  less  successful  are 
making  to  carry  it  upward  through  the  grades  of  the  primary  and 
grammar  schools.  We  have  also  seen  that  manual  training  has 
been  secured  a  place  in  the  high-school  instruction  of  the  country. 
It  remains  to  notice  the  efforts  that  have  been  made  to  connect 
the  manual  training  of  the  high  schools  with  that  below,  by  work- 
ing downward  through  the  grades  of  the  grammar  schools. 

These  efforts  have  been  made  in  two  ways  :  first,  by  introduc- 
ing the  simpler  wood-working  exercises  of  the  Russian  system  of 
shop  instruction  into  the  upper  grades  of  the  grammar  schools  ; 
and,  secondly,  by  introducing  a  system  of  wood-working  which 
comes  to  us  ready-made  from  Sweden,  and  is  known  as  sloyd. 
It  is  obvious  that  the  Russian  system,  which  was  designed  for 
young  men,  must  undergo  important  modifications  to  fit  it  for  the 
use  of  city  grammar-school  boys.  The  Swedish  sloyd,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  already  well  adapted  to  the  powers  of  young  boys, 
because  it  is  the  outcome  of  long  experience  in  Sweden,  where  it 
has  been  used  to  supply  manual  training  for  young  boys  in  the 
elementary  schools.  The  exercises  of  the  Russian  system,  being 
rather  difficult  for  boys  under  fourteen  years  of  age,  cannot  easily 
be  carried  on  in  the  lower  classes  of  the  grammar  schools.  The 
necessary  modification,  therefore,  consists  in  substituting  simpler 

*  Boston,  1887. 


22  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

exercises  for  the  more  difficult  ones,  and  then  rearranging  the 
whole  so  as  to  secure  easy  gradations  and  logical  development. 
Only  wood- working  exercises  with  hand  tools  have,  for  the  most 
part,  been  used  in  experiments  with  the  Russian  system  in 
grammar  schools.  A  noteworthy  exception  to  this  remark,  how- 
ever, occurs  in  the  case  of  the  William  H.  Lincoln  school  in 
Brookline,  where  the  use  of  some  wood-working  machinery  takes 
place  in  the  grammar  classes,  and  where,  probably,  some  work 
with  metals  will  be  given  to  boys  below  the  high-school  grades.* 
But,  speaking  generally,  we  assume  that  the  use  of  machinery 
with  power  is  not  likely  to  become  extensive  or  even  considerable 
among  grammar  schools.  Neither  does  it  appear  probable  that 
metal-work  exercises  will  be  largely  adopted  for  the  training  of 
young  boys. 

The  strong  point  in  the  Russian  shop  instruction  lies  in  the 
emphasis  it  places  on  the  working  drawing.  Every  exercise  must 
be  worked  from  a  drawing  made  by  the  worker  himself  ;  and, 
moreover,  each  worker  must  take,  simultaneously  with  his  courses 
in  shop  work,  a  thorough  course  in  draughting.  The  weak  point 
in  the  Swedish  slo^^d  is  its  neglect  of  the  working  drawing.  At 
least,  this  remark  is  true  of  the  sloyd  as  it  came  to  us  from 
Sweden.  There  have  been  some  changes  in  the  system  since  it 
came  into  this  country,  so  that  we  now  hear  frequent  mention 
made  of  "American  sloyd."  The  most  important  of  these 
changes  is  the  adoption  of  the  working  drawing.  Other  changes 
relate  more  to  details  than  to  matters  of  principle. 

Both  systems,  the  so-called  Russian  and  the  so-called  Swedish, 
are  now  on  trial  in  the  grammar  schools  of  Boston,  and  on  quite  a 
large  scale  ;  but  it  is  too  early  now  to  report  the  results  of  that  trial. 
The  intention  of  the  school  committee  of  that  city  is  understood 
to  be  to  continue  the  experiment  for  perhaps  two  years  longer,  in 
expectation  that  there  may  be  a  clear  demonstration  from  experi- 
ence of  the  best  means  by  which  the  wants  of  boys  in  city  grammar 


*  For  an  account  of  this  school,  by  Professor  Runkle,  see  Appendix  B.  Further 
information  may  he  found  in  a  report  of  the  testimony  given  by  the  principal  of  the 
school,  Mr.  D.  S.  Farnham,  Appendix  C,  and  by  Mr.  Samuel  T.  Button,  superintend- 
ent of  schools,  Appendix  D. 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  23 

schools  can  be  supplied,  whether  by  the  Russian  shop  work  or  by 
the  Swedish  sloyd,  or  by  some  combination  and  outgrowth  of  the 
two,  larger  and  better  than  either. 

Another  much-debated  difference  'between  the  two  systems  is 
found  in  the  nature  of  the  exercises  employed.  By  the  Swedish 
system  it  is  required  that  every  piece  of  work  shall  be  some  com- 
pleted and  useful  article  ;  but  in  the  Russian  system  little  or  no 
regard  is  paid  to  such  a  requirement,  the  pieces  of  wood-work  in 
the  early  part  of  the  course  being  merely  so  many  specimens  of 
carpenters'  joints.  Here,  evidently,  is  matter  for  interesting  dis- 
cussion. But  it  does  not  lie  within  the  purpose  of  this  report  to 
engage  in  such  a  discussion,  for  the  reason,  chiefly,  that  experience 
alone  can  demonstrate  the  superiority  of  this  or  that  system,  and 
experience  in  this  country  is  hardly  yet  ripe  enough  to  be  conclu- 
sive. 

What,  however,  our  experience  has  proved  appears  to  be  that 
wood-working  in  some  form  or  other,  but  chiefly  with  hand  tools 
at  the  bench  and  without  the  use  of  much  machinery,  is  a  form  of 
manual  training  well  suited  to  the  wants  of  boys  in  city  grammar 
schools  ;  that  girls  as  well  as  boys  can  receive  the  instruction  with 
excellent  results  ;  and  that  the  instruction  can  be  given  by  the 
regular  teachers  of  the  primary  and  grammar  classes,  after  a 
suitable  course  of  preparatory  training,  even  though  these  teachers 
are  women  wholly  inexperienced  previously  in  the  use  of  tools. 

This  last  result  has  been  not  a  little  surprising  to  many,  al- 
though enthusiastic  sloydists  claim  that  it  is  the  most  natural  thing 
in  the  world.  Either  way,  the  result  is  equally  welcome  ;  for  it 
goes  far  towards  answering  the  question.  Who  will  be  the  teachers 
of  wood-working  if  that  branch  of  instruction  is  to  be  generally 
adopted  in  the  elementary  schools  ?  The  point  of  this  question 
lies  just  here  :  so  long  as  a  new  branch  of  instruction,  like  wood- 
working, seems  likely  to  require  a  corps  of  special  teachers  in 
addition  to  the  regular  teachers,  and  at  considerable  additional  ex- 
pense, people  are  likely  to  object  to  its  introduction,  or,  if  already 
in,  to  throw  it  out  when  economy  is  the  cry  ;  but  if  the  regular 
teachers  can  do  the  work  with  no  more  assistance  from  experts 
than  may  be  necessary  at  first  to  give  them  a  preparatory  training, 


24:  MAI^UAL    TRAINING   AND 

then  the  most  serious  ground  for  objection  falls  away.  It  is  par- 
ticularly interesting,  therefore,  to  observe  the  fact  that  a  consider- 
able number  of  women,  primary  and  grammar  school  teachers  in 
Boston  and  other  places,  have  taken  the  course  of  instruction  in 
sloyd  given  by  Mr.  Larsson  in  Boston,  and  have  since  become 
teachers  of  sloyd  to  grammar-school  children,  —  not  only  boys, 
but  in  some  instances  girls  too. 

The  extent  to  which  wood-working  has  been  adopted  in  the 
elementary  schools  of  the  United  States  has  not  been  precisely  as- 
certained, because  the  information  contained  in  printed  reports  is 
not  always  full  and  explicit  enough  to  show  just  what  is  meant  by 
the  general  statement  that  "manual  training"  has  been  "intro- 
duced into  the  public  schools."  Sometimes  the  meaning  is  merely 
that  drawing  has  been  made  a  part  of  the  course  of  study  ;  or 
that  paper-folding,  clay-modelling  and  card-board  construction 
have  been  included  in  the  primary  school  work ;  or  that  sewing 
has  been  taught  to  the  girls.  Again,  the  meaning  may  be  that 
wood-working  at  bench  and  lathe,  but  not  the  full  course  in  the 
mechanic  arts,  has  been  adopted  in  the  high  school  or  in  the  upper 
classes  of  the  grammar  schools.  It  is,  however,  certain  that  wood- 
working has  been  adopted  more  or  less  extensively  in  the  grammar 
schools  of  Washington,  D.  C,  New  Haven,  Conn.,  St.  Paul, 
Minn.,  Montclair,  N.  J.,  New  York  City,  Jamestown,  N.  Y.,  and 
of  Boston,  Brookline,  Springfield,  Northampton,  Waltham  and 
Salem  in  Massachusetts.  It  is  also  to  be  noted  that  the  lively 
demand  for  good  sloyd  teachers  indicates  a  wide-spread  interest 
in  the  subject. 

There  are  several  State  normal  schools  which,  like  that  at  New 
Britain,  Conn.,  have  adopted  wood-working,  not  only  that  their 
pupils  may  understand  the  principles  of  manual  training  as  a 
metJiod  in  education^  but  also  acquire  the  skill  to  construct  the  sim- 
ple apparatus  they  may  afterwards  need  in  their  teaching.  Two 
normal  schools  in  Massachusetts,  that  at  Salem  and  that  at  Bridge- 
water,  have  done  this.  For  a  description  of  the  course  in  the 
latter  school,  by  the  principal,  Mr.  Boyden,  see  Appendix  E. 

A  good  general  idea  of  the  wood-working  now  experimentally 
carried  on  in  the  grammar  schools  of  Boston  may  be  gathered  from 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION.  25 

the  representations  given  in  Appendix  F.  Plates  I.,  II.,  III.  and 
rV.  show  a  graded  course  in  wood-work,  covering  four  years, 
drawn  mainly  from  the  Russian  shop  work.  This  course  was 
arranged  by  Mr.  Frank  M.  Leavitt,  and  has  been  taught  by  him 
for  two  or  three  years  past  in  the  Eliot  School  at  Jamaica  Plain. 
Plate  V.  shows  the  room  with  the  benches  and  tools.  Plates  VI. 
and  VII.  show  a  four-years  course  in  Swedish  sloyd  for  grammar 
schools,  taught  by  Mr.  Gustaf  Larsson  at  the  Appleton  Street 
School  in  Boston.  Plates  VIII.,  IX.  and  X.  give  views  of  the 
models  chosen  by  Mr.  B.  F.  Eddy  for  his  course  of  instruction  at 
the  North  Bennet  Street  Industrial  School  in  Boston.  Plate  XI. 
shows  the  room  with  a  class  of  boys  at  work  ;  Plate  XII.,  the  class 
at  drawing  ;  and  Plate  XIII.,  the  class  gathered  for  a  demonstra- 
tion. Mr.  Eddy  has  contributed  a  detailed  statement  of  his  man- 
ner of  teaching  the  exercises  illustrated  by  his  models.  (See 
Appendix  G.) 

For  the  lower  classes  of  grammar  schools  something  has  been 
done  in  devising  wood- working  exercises  suitable  for  young  pupils. 
The  "  knife  work"  practised  in  the  Springfield  schools  consists  of 
exercises  in  cutting  thin  wood  to  prescribed  forms  and  dimensions. 
The  pieces  are  afterwards  put  together  with  glue  or  brads,  to  make 
various  miniature  articles  or  toys.*  This  same  work  has  been 
done  in  the  Lowell  School  in  Boston,  by  boys  in  the  two  lowest 
grammar  classes.  It  can  be  done  in  an  ordinary  school-room  with 
no  more  change  of  equipment  than  merely  placing  a  board  cover 
on  the  top  of  the  ordinary  desk.     The  tools  are  few  and  simple. 

Another  course  of  wood-work  for  young  grammar  pupils  is  used 
in  the  schools  at  Northampton.  Its  author.  Rev.  Frederick  A. 
Hinckley,  has  kindly  furnished  a  description  with  illustrations, 
which  will  be  found  in  the  Appendix.  (See  Appendix  H.)  Tlie 
chief  merit  of  this  course,  aside  from  its  simplicity,  practicability 
and  inexpensiveness,  appears  to  be  its  close  connection  and 
coordination  with  drawing.  It  is  in  itself  an  admirable  course  in 
form  study,  carried  on  by  the  best  of  methods,  that  of  form 
making. 

*  For  the  whole  course  of  wood-working,  including  the  "  knife  work,"  in  the 
Springfield  schools,  see  Appendix  I. 


26  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

Thus  far  our  report  has  dealt  chiefly  with  manual  training  for 
boys.  That  for  girls  and  for  young  children  will  be  treated  fully 
in  another  part.  We  conclude  this  part  with  a  brief  consideration 
of  the  question  why  it  is  that  manual  training  has  become  so  wide- 
spread and  so  popular  during  the  last  dozen  years. 

It  is  certain  that  the  writings  of  educational  philosophers  have 
not  kindled  the  existing  interest  in  the  subject,  for  these  have  been 
published  and  read  for  many  years.  Neither  can  we  attribute 
much  to  the  influence  of  educators,  —  meaning  by  this  term  the 
class  of  persons  engaged  in  the  practical  administration  of  educa- 
tional affairs, —  because  their  opinions  have  been  widely  various. 
Some  have  been  as  conspicuous  for  opposing  as  others  have  for 
advocating  this  new  discipline,  while  very  many  have  remained 
uncommitted. 

To  some  extent  we  may  attribute  the  favorable  reception  manual 
training  has  had  to  its  promise  of  becoming  an  acceptable  substi- 
tute for  apprenticeship,  now  fallen  into  merited  disuse  ;  or  to  its 
opening  the  way  to  industrial  employments  for  the  many  whom 
circumstances  now  exclude  ;  or  to  its  great  attractiveness  for  active 
boys  ;  or  to  its  excellence  as  physical  exercise  ;  or  to  its  answer- 
ing the  somewhat  vague  demand  for  "something  practical"  in 
education;  or  to  its  inculcating  "  the  true  dignity  of  labor"  and 
"  respect  for  the  laborer."  Each  of  these  causes  has,  undoubtedly, 
contributed  something,  and  the  total  effect  has  been  considerable. 
But  there  is  a  more  powerful  cause  than  any  of  these,  or  all  of 
these  together. 

Among  the  deep-rooted  convictions  cherished  by  New  England 
people  and  their  descendants  everywhere,  none  is  more  firmly  held 
than  this,  —  that  learning  how  to  work  and  forming  habits  of 
industry  are  indispensable  elements  in  the  right  education  of  every 
boy  or  girl.  This  belief  early  found  expression  in  the  laws,  as 
thus  in  Massachusetts  in  the  year  1642  :  — 

This  Court,  taking  into  consideration  the  great  neglect  in  many 
parents  and  masters  in  training  up  their  children  in  learning  and 
labor,  and  other  imployments  which  may  bee  profitable  to  the 
common  wealth,  do  hereupon  order  and  decree,  that  in  every 
towne  the  chosen  men  appointed  for  managing  the  prudenciall 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  27 

affaires  of  the  same  shall  hencefourth  stand  charged  with  the  care 
of  the  redresse  of  this  evill,  so  as  they  shalbee  liable  to  bee  pun- 
ished or  fined  for  the  neglect  thereof,  .  .  .  and  for  this  end  they, 
or  the  greater  part  of  them,  shall  have  power  to  take  accompt 
from  time  to  time  of  their  parents  and  masters,  and  of  their  chil- 
dren, concerning  their  calling  and  impliment  of  their  children, 
especiallity  of  their  ability  to  read  and  understand  the  principles 
of  religion  and  the  capital  lawes  of  the  country,  .  .  .  and  they 
shall  have  power  (with  consent  of  any  Court  or  magistrates)  to  put 
fourth  apprentice  the  children  of  such  as  they  shall  find  not  to  bee 
able  and  fit  to  imply  and  bring  them  up,  nor  shall  take  course  to 
dispose  of  them  themselves  ;  and  they  are  to  take  care  that  such 
as  are  set  to  keep  cattle  bee  set  to  some  other  impliment  withall, 
as  spinning  up  on  the  rock,  kniting,  weveing  tape,  etc.,  .  .  .  and 
for  their  better  performance  of  this  trust  committed  to  them,  they 
may  divide  the  towne  amongst  them,  appointing  to  every  of  the 
said  townsmen  a  certeine  number  of  families  to  have  speciall  over- 
sight of ;  they  are  also  to  provide  that  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
materialls,  as  hempe,  flaxe,  etc.,  may  bee  raised  in  their  severall 
townes,  and  tooles  and  implements  provided  for  working  out  the 
same  ;  and  for  their  assistance  in  this  so  needfull  and  beneficiall 
impliment,  if  they  meet  with  any  difficulty  or  opposition  which 
they  cannot  well  master  by  their  owne  power,  they  may  have 
recourse  to  some  of  the  magistrates,  who  shall  take  such  course  for 
their  help  and  incuragment  as  the  occasion  shall  require,  according 
to  iustice.* 

And  the  influence  of  this  belief  may  be  traced  through  subse- 
quent legislation  down  to  the  present  day.  How  fully  the  domes- 
tic life,  manners  and  customs  of  New  England  people  exemplify 
the  excellence  of  this  doctrine  of  "learning  and  labor"  in  the 
education  of  children  needs  not  here  to  be  told.  The  story  may 
be  read  on  every  page  of  New  England  history. 

Thus  do  we  see  that  the  plain  common-sense  of  the  people  has 
followed  in  practice  the  doctrine  of  the  philosophers,  that  educa- 
tion by  and  through  work  —  outwardly  productive  and  useful 
work  of  the  hands  —  is  essential  to  the  right  intellectual  and 
moral  training  of  children,  essential  to  the  right  training  for  citi- 
zenship-in  a^ree  State. 


^^Secords  of  Massachusetts,"  volume  II.,  pages  8  and  9,  printed,  Boston,  1863. 


28  MANUAL,    TRAINING   AND 

Until  within  a  generation  tlie  conditions  of  New  England  life 
were  such  as  to  permit  full  scope  to  this  education  by  and  through 
work.  No  better  kindergarten  was  ever  invented  than  the  New 
England  farm,  provided  only  the  conditions  of  life  were  not  so 
desperately  hard  as  to  leave  the  mother  no  time  to  superintend  the 
occupations  of  her  children.  For  the  growing  boy  there  were  the 
occupations  of  the  field,  the  woods  and  the  garden ;  and  rainy 
days  there  were  the  tools  in  the  tool  room  ;  or,  if  these  failed  to 
interest  him,  there  was  the  neighbor's  shop,  where  he  might  begin 
to  learn  his  chosen  trade.  The  wise  father  took  good  care  that 
these  means  of  education  were  properly  used.  All  this  answers 
precisely  to  the  ideal  circumstances  pictured  by  Froebel  in  his 
"  Education  of  Man."  The  home  was  to  co-operate  with  the 
school  in  the  education  of  the  boy,  taking  more  particular  charge 
of  the  training  of  his  active  powers  and  of  his  religious  life,  while 
leaving  the  book  studies  to  the  school. 

But  railroads  and  factories  have  wrought  a  profound  alteration 
in  New  England  life.  The  conditions  are  all  changed.  Peo- 
ple have  gathered  themselves  into  great  and  growing  cities ;  the 
farms  are  deserted  ;  of  gardens  there  are  few  ;  and  the  neighbors 
who  had  workshops  for  their  various  crafts  are  now  employed 
in  great  manufacturing  establishments.  Our  population  has  be- 
come largely  urbanized.  The  city  father,  however  wise,  however 
disposed  to  carry  on  the  education  of  his  boys  "  by  and  through 
work,"  finds  insurmountable  obstacles  in  his  way.  His  own  work 
is  seldom  such  that  he  can  share  it  with  his  boys  ;  the  ' '  neighbor's 
shop"  is  hard  to  find;  the  "manufacturing  establishment"  takes 
no  apprentices.  He  could  perhaps  provide  tools  and  a  tool  room 
in  his  own  house,  were  he  at  home  enough  to  teach  their  use  ;  but 
even  then  the  boys  would  lack  the  time  ;  for  the  public  school 
claims  their  attendance  forty  weeks  in  the  year,  and  can  by  law 
exact  thirty  up  to  the  age  of  fourteen.  So  he  is  compelled,  by 
the  very  circumstances  of  city  life,  to  hand  over  the  whole  busi- 
ness of  education  to  the  schools.  The  schools  must  take  care  of 
the  education  "  by  and  through  work,"  or  it  will  not  be  cared  for 
at  all.  Meanwhile,  tl^e  mother  finds  the  ideal  kind*ergarten  of  rural 
life  replaced    by  the  city   sidewalk   and    the   paved    back   yard. 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION.  29 

Fortunate  is  she  if  she  can  get  a  small  heap  of  clean  sand  for  her 
little  ones  to  play  in.  City  children  are  like  plants  in  a  green- 
house or  animals  in  cages,  developing  abnormally  under  abnor- 
mal conditions. 

Thus  has  come  to  exist  in  all  cities  and  large  towns  a  profound 
educational  want.  All  the  people  feel  it ;  some  see  it  and  under- 
stand it ;  but  heretofore  little  has  been  done  to  relieve  it.  The 
city  school,  with  its  forty  weeks  of  term  time,  has  merely  filled 
with  more  book  learning  the  gap  left  by  the  departed  home 
employments.  The  traditional  balance  between  "learning  and 
labor"  has  been  upset,  and  "  learning"  has  taken  the  whole  time. 
True,  something  has  been  done  in  one  city  or  another  towards 
providing  substitutes  for  the  lost  home  training.  Sewing  and 
cooking  have  become  branches  of  school  work  for  girls  in  a  few 
places  ;  and  manual  training  in  other  forms  is  just  now  finding  its 
place  in  the  schools.  These  instances,  however,  are  but  slight 
exceptions  to  the  general  statement  that  until  quite  recently  the 
schools  have  offered  no  substitute  for  that  home  training  which 
children  have  lost  in  their  change  from  country  to  city  life.  The 
schools  have  done  nothing,  because  the  way  has  not  been  clear ; 
nor  has  there  been,  until  lately,  any  strong  desire  to  make  it  so. 
Meanwhile,  the  sense  of  something  lost  or  wanting  has  been 
abiding  and  pervasive,  although  somewhat  vague  and  inarticulate. 
Like  certain  conditions  of  the  human  body,  it  declares  itself  by 
symptoms.  The  ever-ready  disposition  to  criticise  the  city 
schools  for  not  turning  out  such  young  men  and  women  as  the 
country  schools  used  to  turn  out,  or  as  the  schools  of  the  same 
city  used  to  turn  out  fifty  or  sixty  years  ago,  is  but  a  symptom  of 
the  underlying  uneasiness.  The  same  is  true  of  the  fussy  desire 
for  "  something  practical"  in  education.  The  numerous  fathers 
who  know  not  what  to  do  witli  their  boys,  and  the  increasing  mul- 
titudes of  boys  growing  up  in  the  cities  witli  little  learning  and 
less  labor,  do  but  aggravate  these  symptoms. 

Now,  it  is  because  people  see  or  think  they  see  in  manual  train- 
ing a  means  of  repairing  the  loss  and  relieving  the  want  by  which 
they  have  felt  so  long  oppressed  that  they  have  so  heartily  wel- 
comed this  new  means  of  education.       If  people  have  neglected 


30  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

awhile  that  excellent  old  doctrine  of  "learning  and  labor,"  and 
have  experienced  the  ill  consequences  of  such  neglect,  the  return 
to  sound  practice  will  not  be  slow  nor  half  way,  but  quick  and 
complete.  It  seems  as  if  the  hearty  popular  approval  with  which 
manual  training  has  been  received  in  these  recent  years  might  be 
the  harbinger  of  such  a  happy  return. 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION.  31 


PAET    II. 


Bt  LOUISA  PARSONS   HOPKINS. 


Elementary   Manual   Training. 

While  manual  and  industrial  training  was  entering  the  upper 
schools  through  the  workshops  and  laboratories,  the  kindergarten 
had  gradually  introduced  a  similar  motive  at  the  beginning  of 
school  education.  Froebel  had  announced  his  philosophy  of  the 
child's  development,  and  formulated  the  kindergarten  as  a  natural 
and  logical  method  for  the  child's  earliest  instruction.  Froebel  had 
adopted  Pestalozzi's  system  of  object  teaching,  and  consummated 
it  with  his  own  peculiar  doctrine  of  "learning  by  doing."  The 
"  gifts  "  which  he  provided  for  the  child's  observational  use  were 
supplemented  by  what  he  called  "  occupations,"  intended  to  com- 
plete observation  by  tangible  representation.  Manual  training, 
therefore,  had  been  growing  simultaneously  from  both  extremes  of 
the  curriculum,  and  the  present  problem  is  in  connecting  and  inter- 
relating the  work  from  both  extremes. 

The  kindergarten  was  presented  to  the  world  by  Froebel  about 
fifty  years  ago.  It  was  introduced  into  this  country  by  Miss 
Elizabeth  P.  Peabody  and  Mrs.  Horace  Mann  a  little  more  than 
thirty  years  ago.  It  was  planted  in  Boston  by  Mrs.  Pauline 
Agassiz  Shaw  nearly  twenty  years  ago,  supported  and  fostered  by 
her  personal  enterprise  and  resources,  and  her  sixteen  kindergartens 
with  their  equipments  and  trained  teachers  were  given  by  her  to 
the  city  of  Boston  in  1887. 

Miss  Susan  Blow  did  a  similar  work  for  the  city  of  St.  Louis, 
and  Miss  Anna  Hallowell  for  Philadelphia.  The  kindergarten  is 
now  the  accepted  beginning  of  school  education  in  the  educational 
centres  of  this  country  and  Europe. 

Kindergarten  Manual  Training. 
The  occupations  of  the  kindergarten  are  arranged  for  the  sys- 
tematic development  of  the  child's  powers,  based  upon  the  child's 


32  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

natural  activities ;  they  train  the  sense  of  touch  to  nice  observa- 
tion and  the  hand  to  careful  and  skilful  manipulation  for  the  tan- 
gible representation  of  all  the  ideas  of  the  mind  and  the  expres- 
sion of  all  the  emotions  of  the  soul.  In  this  training  of  the  hand 
the  various  senses  are  also  educated ;  the  eye  especially  learns  to 
see  more  exactly  and  completely,  so  as  to  obtain  the  knowledge 
requisite  to  truthful  representation  in  hand-work.  Accurate  ex- 
pression is  the  test  of  accurate  knowledge.  Accurate  and  com- 
plete perception  is  essential  to  tangible  expression. 

The  kindergarten  occupations  are  connected  with  what  are 
called  "the  gifts;"  the  results  of  observation  as  developed  by 
the  gifts  are  recorded  by  actual  representation  in  "the  occupa- 
tions." The  occupations  are  also  designed  to  lead  up  to  the  chief 
industries  of  life,  as  well  as  to  the  study  of  nature  and  the 
development  of  art.  These  occupations  may  therefore  be  regarded 
not  only  as  the  completion  of  observation  but  as  the  beginning  of 
training  for  industry,  science  and  art ;  and  in  this  respect  they 
give  the  three-fold  activities  of  the  child  their  natural  develop- 
ment, and  may  be  taken  as  a  model  for  all  subsequent  courses  of 
manual  training. 

In  discussing  the  significance  of  the  kindergarten  gifts  and 
occupations,  we  may  say  generally  that  the  gifts  are  meant  to  aid 
the  child  in  classifying  his  observations  concerning  the  form  or 
appearance  of  things,  and  to  serve  him  in  his  efforts  to  gain 
knowledge  of  things.  The  occupations,  on  the  other  hand, 
are  to  serve  him  in  his  efforts  to  express  his  ideas  of  things, 
and  to  apply  his  knowledge  to  the  realization  of  a  definite 
purpose. 

The  kindergarten  occupations  as  laid  down  by  Froebel  are  :  — 

1.  Building  with  blocks  ;  card-board  construction. 

2.  Making  forms  and  designs  with  sticks,  tablets  or  rings. 

3.  Folding  and  cutting  paper  into  geometrical  forms. 

4.  Weaving  with  paper  or  other  material. 

5.  Sewing  on  perforated  cards. 

6.  Drawing,  as  a  language  for  expressing  form  ideas. 

7.  Modelling  in  clay  and  other  plastic  material. 

8.  Gardening. 


IXDUSTEIAL   EDUCATIOIT.  33 

These  occupations  may  be  scheduled  according  to  their  relations, 
as  follows :  — 

A.  Bodies  or  solids : 

1.  Block  building. 

2.  Clay  modelling. 

3.  Card-board  construction. 

B.  Surfaces : 

1 .  Paper  folding,  cutting  and  pasting. 

2.  Tablet  laying. 

3.  Painting. 
C   Lines : 

1.  Stick  laying. 

2.  "Weaving. 

8.   Embroidery. 

4.  Drawing. 
D.   Points : 

1.  Bead  stringing. 

2.  Peas,  shells,  etc.  (arrangement  of) . 
8.    Perforating. 

"With  the  study  of  solids  the  child  is  helped  to  apprehend  the 
distinct  individuality  of  things  ;  the  study  of  surface  helps  him  to 
classify  things  on  the  basis  of  their  shape  ;  the  study  of  lines  leads 
him  to  counting,  measuring  and  the  apprehension  of  direction  and 
proportion  ;  the  study  of  points  leads  him  to  understand  position 
and  relation. 

The  clay  modelling  enables  the  child  to  record  his  observation 
of  the  most  delicate  deviations  from  the  typical  shapes,  and  leads 
him  to  an  appreciation  of  type  forms.  The  block  building  and 
card-board  work  develop  his  constructive  talents ;  the  paper 
folding  and  cutting  stimulate  his  inventive  power,  and  prepare 
him  to  record  with  brush  or  crayon  the  products  of  memory  or 
imagination,  and,  with  the  weaving,  embroidery  and  drawing, 
develop  his  artistic  tendency. 

It  is  plain  also  that  the  proper  use  of  the  material  of  the 
occupations  results  in  moral  power,  because  it  implants  in  the 
child  habits  of  industry,  clearness,  accuracy  and  harmony,  which 
in  attitude  and  motive  influence  his  whole  development,  and  co- 
ordinate him  with  his  fellows  in  social  and  benevolent  organiza- 
tions, so  as  to  make  him  a  factor  for  good  in  the  community  of 


34  MANUAL    TRALN-IXG   AND 

child  life.  In  all  these  occupations  the  individuality  and  creative 
power  of  the  child  should  have  full  scope.  They  may  be  connected 
with  observation  of  nature  and  life  or  with  the  imagination  and 
feeling,  yet  they  should  be  conducted  according  to  the  legitimate 
growth  of  the  child's  powers,  and,  in  the  main,  according  to  a 
prescribed  sequence  founded  on  the  great  laws  of  educational 
philosophy.  The  child  should  be  led  from  the  easy  to  the  difficult, 
from  the  simple  to  the  complex,  from  the  known  to  the  unknown, 
in  all  manual  as  well  as  mental  training.  The  exercises  must  be 
for  the  child,  not  the  child  for  the  exercises  or  system.  "Whatever 
is  given  to  the  child  to  do  should  be  adapted  to  his  interest,  to  his 
stage  of  progress  and  to  his  relations  with  life  ;  it  should  advance 
him  in  knowledge  and  skill,  should  minister  to  his  manual  dexter- 
ity and  creative  instinct,  as  well  as  to  his  desire  to  communicate 
to  others  what  he  has  acquired,  and  become  useful  and  helpful  to 
all ;  in  other  words,  it  should  involve  the  activities  of  the  body, 
the  mind  and  the  soul  in  their  natural  relations  and  order  of 
growth. 

Building  is  one  of  the  most  natural  and  pleasurable  occupations 
of  a  child  ;  it  leads  him  to  constructive  rather  than  to  destructive 
work,  to  skill  in  handling,  balancing  and  arranging  parts,  to 
mechanical  contrivance,  to  unity  of  design,  to  an  apprehension  of 
proportion  and  symmetry  ;  it  teaches  him  unconsciously  many  of 
the  laws  of  physics,  gives  play  to  his  imagination  and  inventive 
faculties,  and  involves  a  study  of  material  as  well  as  of  forces. 

Laying  of  sficJcs,  etc.,  leads  to  decorative  design  and  the  rep- 
resentation of  geometric  and  natural  forms  ;  it  cultivates  a  percep- 
tion of  planes  and  lines,  or  edges  and  faces,  and  may  be  utilized  in 
the  study  of  the  geometric  outlines  of  objects,  so  far  as  such  study 
can  be  properly  carried  with  the  little  child.  It  is  also  suggestive 
of  the  study  of  number  and  place. 

Paper  folding  and  cutting  gives  skill  of  fingers  and  accuracy  of 
measurement,  and,  combined  with  color,  allows  opportunity  for  a 
study  of  color,  form  and  proportion,  which  is  essentially  artistic 
in  its  tendency. 

Weaving  involves  color,  careful  hand-work,  a  knowledge  of  one 
of  the  most  fundamental  and  inclusive  industries,  with  opportunity 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATIOIST.  35 

for  a  study  of  material  and  the  applications  of  the  art  to  various 
material.  It  may  also  be  combined  with  color  and  design,  so  as 
to  make  the  industry  artistic,  and  educate  the  sense  of  harmony 
and  proportion. 

Sewing  cultivates  precision  of  the  eye  and  hand,  as  well  as  the 
sense  of  regularity  and  measurement.  It  should,  in  the  kinder- 
garten, involve  color  and  form,  and  be  used  as  a  kind  of  drawing 
and  method  of  decorative  design.  It  develops  the  moral  nature, 
by  training  to  habits  of  neatness,  order,  economy  and  helpfulness, 
as  well  as  by  appealing  to  the  sense  of  beauty. 

Drawing  and  modelling  should  go  hand  in  hand  throughout 
all  the  manual  training  of  the  kindergarten.  In  the  study  of 
nature  and  of  the  type  forms  presented  by  nature  and  illus- 
trated by  "the  gifts"  of  Froebel,  the  drawing  should  be  en- 
tirely with  the  free  hand,  and  should  be  used  chiefly  as  a  means 
of  thought  expression  by  the  child.  Drawing  and  modelling  not 
ouly  train  to  manual  dexterity,  they  also  offer  the  readiest  and 
freest  means  through  which  the  creative  feeling  of  the  child  can 
find  expression  ;  they  are  capable  of  constant  application  to  every 
branch  of  study ;  they  are  connected  with  all  industries  ;  they 
develop  the  esthetic  sense  and  powers,  and  are  suited  to  every 
grade  of  school  work  and  every  stage  of  education.  In  the 
kindergarten  modelling  the  free  fingers  only  should  be  used,  and 
in  drawing  the  pencil  and  brush  should  be  used  by  the  free  hand 
only,  other  tools  being  postponed  to  the  primary  school. 

Gardening  leads  the  child  to  a  love  of  plant  life .  and  to 
companionship  with  nature,  as  well  as  to  healthful  out-of-door 
occupation.  Every  kindergarten  should  have  a  garden-plot ;  but 
where  this  is  impracticable,  gardening  may  be  carried  on  in  the 
school-room  by  means  of  window-gardening  or  a  sand  box.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  delightful  kinds  of  work  to  the  child,  and  exer- 
cises in  full  sympathy  and  harmony  all  parts  of  his  three-fold 
nature.  It  should  never  be  neglected  in  the  kindergarten.  It 
may  involve  careful  observation  of  processes,  as  well  as  forms ; 
the  hand-work  of  pressing,  mounting,  drawing  and  coloring  of 
plant  forms ;  the  original  study  of  plants  in  their  conditions,  their 
habits,  their  parts,  their  organism,  their  beauties,  their  processes, 


36  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

laws  of  growth,  relations  with  nature  and  life,  as  well  as  their 
expression  of  constant  creative  activity  in  nature  ;  they  lead  to  a 
recognition  of  the  fatherhood  of  the  Creator,  and  the  sustaining 
love  and  power  above  and  within  the  material  universe  for  each 
individual  life,  thus  developing  in  the  highest  direction  the  child's 
growing  powers. 

Although  it  may  not  be  necessary  to  vary  such  a  course  of 
occupations  as  Froebel  has  laid  down  for  the  kindergarten, 
nevertheless  there  should  not  be  an  unyielding  adherence  to  it 
under  all  conditions  and  circumstances.  The  purpose  is  higher 
than  the  means,  and  whatever  is  natural  and  educative  must  be 
regarded  as  legitimate  in  the  training  of  the  child  before  the 
primary-school  age.  Sympathy  and  original  appreciation  of  the 
philosophy  of  the  child's  growth  must  determine  the  plan  to  some 
extent  for  every  kindergartner.  The  child  should  be  prepared  by 
the  kindergartner  for  more  distinct  lines  of  study  and  more 
concentrated  application  of  the  will  and  purpose  to  achieve  in  all 
branches  of  mental  and  manual  training.  The  kindergarten  must 
reach  upward  toward  the  primary-school  subjects  and  method  of 
study,  and  the  primary  school  should  vitalize  its  work  by  the 
adoption,  to  a  great  extent,  of  kindergarten  methods.  Tlie 
doctrine  of  "  learning  by  doing "  should  be  applied  to  every  line 
of  study,  and  thus  the  kindergarten  and  primary  work  be  an 
unbroken  series  of  progressions.  The  kindergarten,  as  in  most 
American  schools,  should  be  held  in  a  room  by  itself,  but  in  a 
building  with  the  primary  school,  so  that  it  may  become  familiar 
as  a  preparation  for  that  grade.  In  the  Board  Schools  of  London 
and  Liverpool,  which  were  visited  in  the  interests  of  this  Com- 
mission, the  kindergarten  was  so  interwoven  with  the  infant 
school  that  it  was  hard  to  see  where  one  ended  and  the  other 
began.  The  manual  training  of  the  English  kindergartens  is 
rather  industrial  in  motive  and  mechanical  in  method,  with  a 
tendency  to  commercial  values.  Much  of  the  weaving  is  with 
straw  or  twine,  and  without  color.  In  the  Paris  kindergartens 
there  was  discerned  a  more  artistic  foundation  and  tendency. 
Objects  of  use  are  more  generally  ornamented,  materials  are  of 
a  kind  to  admit  of  more  artistic   rendering,  —  as,  for  example, 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION.  37 

■vreaving  with  worsted  is  more  common  than  with  paper,  as 
the  fabric  can  be  more  easily  ornamented,  and  the  results 
enter  more  readily  into  harmonious  combination  and  design, — 
also,  the  color  tones  are  finer  and  more  perfectly  blended.  In 
the  kindergartens  connected  with  the  New  Britain  and  Willimantic 
normal  schools  of  Connecticut  the  children  six  years  old  apply 
kindergarten  manual  training  to  the  study  of  plant  life  and  of 
standard  literature.  Children  of  seven  use  sloyd  and  work 
with  tools  at  the  bench.  Children's  drawings,  illustrating  the 
development  of  the  bean  and  pea  from  observation  of  specimens 
they  had  planted,  are  produced.  Also  object  drawing,  in  color, 
of  various  plant  forms,  and  illustrations  of  a  study  of  Long- 
fellow's "  Hiawatha,"  is  made  the  beginning  of  study  in  litera- 
ture. In  many  kindergartens  the  history  of  the  country  is  begun 
by  making  pictures  or  models  of  historical  objects  or  personages, 
and  acting  out  the  story  which  they  represent. 

Manual  Training  in  the  Primary  School. 

Until  within  the  past  two  or  three  years  no  course  of  manual 
training  was  devised  for  children  in  the  primary  grades.  The  field 
still  remains  open  and  comparatively  untried  between  the  kinder- 
garten and  the  departments  of  sewing,  cookery  and  wood-working 
in  the  grammar  schools.  The  work  of  formulating  appropriate 
lines  of  manual  training  for  this  intervening  period  has  been  and 
is  largely  experimental  and  in  most  cases  fragmentary.  While 
there  are  many  courses  for  specific  branches  of  manual  training, 
there  are  but  few  which  attempt  to  integrate  the  various  occupa- 
tions into  a  sequential  course  of  exercises.  In  some  courses  which 
have  been  thus  far  developed,  the  industrial  and  utilitarian  element 
has  been  a  prominent  feature. 

Enough  has  been  done,  however,  to  indicate  that  the  develop- 
ment of  the  kindergarten  occupations  furnishes  the  best  basis  for 
the  manual  training  of  the  primary  and  lower  grammar  schools. 
In  the  large  cities  of  this  country  and  .Europe  this  motive  has 
given  shape  to  all  courses,  and  the  kindergarten  occupations  are 
carried  up  in  close  connection  with  every  department  of  study,  so 
that  the  manual  training  becomes  a  method  of  work  as  well  as  a 
plan  of  work. 


38  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 


Opinions  of  Educators  as  to   Primary  Methods  of   Manual 

Training. 

This  coui'se  of  development  is  in  accordance  with  the  doctrine 
of  those  most  prominently  associated  with  the  manual  training 
movement  from  the  first.  In  an  address  before  the  Social  Science 
Association,  in  1884,  General  TValker  says  :  "  It  is  not  so  much 
the  creation  and  endowment  of  separate  schools  of  this  character 
which  is  in  view,  as  the  gradual  conversion  of  all  the  existing 
schools  of  the  land  to  this  use  through  the  grafting  of  certain 
studies  and  exercises  upon  the  traditional  curriculum.  As  to  the 
precise  nature  and  extent  of  the  studies  and  exercises  which 
should  to  this  end  be  incorporated  in  the  public  school  curriculum, 
and  as  to  the  order  of  these  exercises,  much  difference  of  opinion 
will  doubtless  be  developed  among  those  who  advocate  an  exten- 
sive modification  of  the  present  system.  The  true  system  will  of 
course  have  to  be  worked  out  through  long  discussion  and  experi- 
mentation." 

In  1880  Prof.  Felix  Adler  started  the  Workingman's  School,  in 
New  York  City,  which  introduced  practical  lines  of  industrial 
training  and  tool  work  for  children.  Professor  Adler  says  : 
"  Among  those  who  have  given  most  thoughtful  attention  to  the 
subject,  the  following  points  are  accepted,  namely :  that  manual 
training  means  the  training  of  the  intellect  as  well  as  the  hand ; 
that  its  chief  recommendation  is  that  it  offers  a  new  instrumen- 
tality for  training  the  mind  ;  that  manual  training  logically  con- 
nects with  the  system  of  teaching  at  the  point  called  object 
teaching ;  that  the  business  of  manual  training  is  to  deepen  the 
methods  of  object  teaching.  The  old  object  method  was  to  teach 
the  child  to  observe,  but  manual  training  teaches  not  only  to 
observe  but  to  create.  The  principal  departments  of  school  in 
which  this  method  is  illustrated  are  the  departments  of  drawing, 
of  geometry  and  of  science." 

"  Manual  training,  in  order  to  be  fully  educative,"  says  Dr.  "W. 
N.  Hailmann,  "  should  at  every  step  be  in  full  touch  with  all  the 
kinds  of  knowledge  the  child  is  seeking,  and  with  the  ideas  he 
wishes  to  express.    It  must  be  connected  with  his  number  studies, 


INDUSTEIAL   EDUCATION.  39 

his  form  studies,  his  interest  in  physical  and  chemical  properties, 
in  motion  and  machinery,  his  nature  studies,  his  geography  and 
history,  his  language  and  art." 

Mr.  George  E.icks,  school  inspector  of  London,  says:  "The 
manual  training  we  contemplate  is  a  form  of  education  intended  to 
develop  general  manual  dexterity  rather  than  special  aptitude. 
Manual  training  must  take  its  place  in  the  general  cultivation  of 
the  faculties." 

These  quotations  indicate  the  determining  motive  of  manual 
training  courses  above  the  kindergarten,  and  express  the  general 
aim  of  such  courses  as  have  been  initiated  in  the  primary  and 
grammar  schools.  It  is  understood  to  be  a  method  rather  than  a 
department  of  educational  work,  and  the  kindergarten  occupations 
are  accepted  as  the  basis  of  the  primary  courses  to  be  adapted  to 
the  studies  leading  to  the  higher  courses.  The  study  of  language, 
number,  form,  place,  color,  mineral,  plant  and  animal  life  are  all 
developed  by  tangible  means,  and  learning  is  accomplished  by 
doing.  Every  idea  is  aroused  by  material  presentation,  and  com- 
pleted by  actual  representation.  The  self-activity  of  the  child  is 
engaged  from  first  to  last  for  the  development  of  his  powers. 

Kindergarten  Occupations  in  the  Primary  School. 
The  kindergarten  occupations  can  be  directly  applied  to  the 
language  and  number  work  of  the  primary  school,  as  well  as  to 
the  observational  study  of  natural  forms.  The  material  symbols 
of  the  manual  training  naturally  introduce  pictorial  symbols,  and 
these  latter  the  conventional  symbols  of  reading,  writing  and 
ciphering.  Speech  becomes  a  spontaneous  expression  of  ideas 
generated  by  manual  training,  and  operations  in  numbers  naturally 
arise  in  connection  with  many  of  the  kindergarten  occupations. 
In  considering  feasible  schemes  of  manual  training  for  the  primary 
school,  we  would  suggest  that  the  child  be  kept  at  work  as  much  as 
possible  on  material  which  offers  little  resistance,  such  as  clay, 
wax,  paper  and  worsted.  These  offer  a  wide  scope  for  progressive 
work,  enabling  the  child  to  put  the  stress  of  his  attention  not  so 
much  upon  the  means  as  upon  the  end  of  his  work,  viz.,  the 
agreement  of   his  results  with  his  ideas.      They  can   be  readily 


40  MAN^UAL   TRAINING  AND 

made  to  reproduce,  with  a  high  degree  of  accuracy,  his  observa- 
tions or  imaginations.  They  also  furnish  excellent  opportunities 
for  social  work  ;  tiles  of  clay  or  mosaic  work  in  paper  and  design, 
patterns  of  embroidery  in  parts,  will  supply  groups  of  children  or 
entire  classes  with  tasks  referring  to  a  common  plan  or  purpose. 
Woven  worsted  squares  combined  in  a  general  design  arouse  the 
interest  and  cultivate  the  benevolent  activities  better  than  many 
isolated  efforts.  This  work  may  be  made  to  lead  to  the  threshold 
of  art,  and  prepare  the  children  for  full  efficiency  in  all  relations 
of  practical  life. 

Paper  and  card-board  work  in  folding,  cutting,  pasting  and  con- 
struction affords  means  for  adding  to  the  gains  from  the  handling 
of  plastic  material ;  habits  of  foresight  and  accuracy,  which  are 
invaluable  in  every  vocation,  are  induced  by  these  occupations, 
because  the  slightest  errors  are  followed  by  irretrievable  failure, 
while  conscientious  and  careful  work  ensures  success.  Card-board 
modelling  admits  of  closer  attention  to  details  than  sloyd,  and 
is  therefore  less  crude  and  utilitarian.  Paper  cutting  and  card- 
board modelling  are  a  sure  foundation  for  scientific  artisanship, 
which  rests  primarily  on  accuracy  and  adaptation  of  means  to  end. 
They  also  lend  themselves  to  ornamentation  through  drawing, 
painting,  inlaying,  cutting  and  carving.  Paper  and  card-board 
cutting  can  be  carried  through  the  fi^rst  eight  years  of  school  life 
as  a  means  of  illustration  in  geometry  and  geography,  mineralogy 
and  botany,  as  well  as  artistic  representation,  in  all  of  which  it 
secures  inventive  and  constructive  skill,  with  manual  dexterity  and 
delicacy.  Work  which  is  done  by  the  fingers  is  more  educative  to 
the  brain  than  that  which  is  done  by  broader  areas  of  muscular 
activity;  delicate  work  of  concentrated  nervous  power  serves 
a  higher  psychological  end  than  crude  physical  effort.  As  the 
courses  advance  they  should  become  more  closely  associated  and 
inter-related,  as  well  as  more  distinctive  and  elective  in  each  line, 
so  as  to  give  freedom  of  development  for  individual  gifts  and 
aptitudes.  Building  with  blocks  may  lead  to  discovery  of  laws 
of  physics,  as  well  as  architectural  design ;  weaving  may  become 
artistic,  as  well  as  more  variously  and  usefully  industrial ;  sewing 
may  connect  itself  with  art  on  the  side  of  embroidery  and  dress- 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUOATIOX.  41 

making ;  clay  modelling  works  for  art  culture,  and  especially  for 
sculpture  ;  coloring  appeals  most  effectually  to  the  aesthetic  and 
spiritual  nature  ;  drawing  as  a  means  of  expression  and  a  common 
language  of  form  seems  to  cover  every  part  of  the  educational 
field  equally  with  spoken  and  written  language ;  gardening  is 
appropriate  to  every  period  of  school  life,  as  a  healthful  out-of- 
door  occupation,  furnishing  the  environment  of  nature,  and  leading 
to  a  study  of  natural  science  and  field  work  in  mineralogy  and 
botany.  Every  school  should  have  a  garden  for  the  children  to 
work  in. 

All  these  methods  of  manual  training  may  be  applied  from  the 
beginning  to  the  end  of  school  life,  and  to  every  study,  consti- 
tuting laboratory  work  in  every  line.  All  manual  training  should 
grow  into  applied  science  or  art,  and  vitalize  every  branch  of 
study. 

Courses  of  Manual  Training  for  Elementary  Schools. 

There  have  been  various  experiments  and  attempts  to  formulate 
a  system  of  manual  training  between  the  kindergarten  and  wood- 
working shops.  At  the  Conference  on  Manual  Training,  held  in 
Boston  in  April,  1891,  many  of  these  schemes  were  represented, 
some  of  which  are  given  in  this  report.     (See  Appendix  M.) 

In  visiting  the  schools  of  some  of  the  principal  cities  of  the 
United  States,  we  found  the  kindergarten  occupations  incorpo- 
rated in  the  curriculum  as  a  method  of  work  applied  to  every 
branch  and  grade  of  instruction,  notably  in  Washington, 
Brookline  and  Boston,  where,  as  in  some  western  cities,  it  is 
carried  on  by  a  course  in  stick  and  tablet  laying,  paper  cutting 
and  folding,  sewing,  clay  modelling,  drawing,  painting  and  card- 
board construction.  In  a  manual  training  exhibit  of  the  schools 
of  London,  visited  in  the  interests  of  this  Commission,  there 
was  a  great  variety  of  work  in  all  the  lines  mentioned.  The 
drawing  was  fine  in  all  departments,  and  designs  in  color  conven- 
tionalized from  plant  forms  were  excellent.  This  work  is  under 
the  direction  of  an  art  superintendent,  with  four  specialists  as 
assistants,  who  conduct  the  work  of  their  departments  from  the 
kindergarten  to  the  training  school.     There  is  a  noticeably  scien- 


42  MANUAL   TRAILING   AND 

tific  bearing  tbroughout  tlie  manual  training  of  the  Liverpool  and 
Loudon  schools.  Mr,  George  Ricks,  inspector  of  the  London 
Board  Schools,  claims  to  have  initiated  and  formulated  the  system 
of  manual  training  for  the  consecutive  course  so  as  to  relate  it  to 
every  study  and  every  grade.  In  the  Liverpool  Board  Schools 
the  courses  are  well  permeated  with  manual  training,  and  the  Day 
Industrial  Schools  and  Certified  Industrial  Schools  give  proficiency 
in  the  common  industries  and  occupations  of  life.  In  the  Board 
Schools  much  is  made  of  mechanical  and  geometric  drawing,  and 
Mr.  Hewitt,  the  director  of  science,  has  given  a  distinctively 
scientific  value  to  the  work.  The  making  of  simple  apparatus 
for  physical  laboratory  lessons,  cabinets  for  natural  science  col- 
lections and  working  drawings  for  all  tool  work  is  a  strong 
feature  in  the  Liverpool  course.  In  the  Paris  school  work  the 
art  idea  prevails,  and  beauty  is  invariably  associated  with  use  ; 
color  enters  into  every  part  of  the  work,  and  historic  orna- 
mentation is  suggested  in  every  grade  of  hand-work.  It  is  a 
prominent  fact  in  the  courses  of  the  European  schools  that  the 
work  is  built  up  under  the  direction  of  eminent  scientists  and 
educators,  and  a  training  in  art  is  considered  necessary  for 
the  instructor  in  manual  training  and  artisanship.  The  work 
of  Liverpool,  London  and  Paris  was  personally  inspected  as 
far  as  opportunity  allowed.  It  is  an  accepted  doctrine  in  these 
cities  that  the  ends  to  be  sought  in  manual  training  are  pre- 
eminently educational.  In  Germany  the  work  has  been  grow- 
ing, and  the  schools  of  Leipzig,  Dresden,  Berlin,  Heidelberg 
and  other  places  carry  on  manual  training  for  young  children 
with  great  success.  In  Sweden  and  Norway  sloyd  fills  the 
various  grades. 

There  is  still  a  good  deal  of  experimentation  along  detached 
lines  in  all  our  cities.  In  Boston  great  freedom  of  selection  is 
given  to  the  schoolmasters,  and  the  work  is  still  tentative  in  the 
lower  grammar  grades.  Sewing  and  cookery  are  required  and 
well  systematized  for  girls ;  but  a  variety  of  courses  of  other 
manual  training  is  exhibited  in  the  schools,  according  to  the 
inclination  or  opportunity  of  the  master  and  the  conditions  of  the 
school.     In  some  grammar  classes  knife  work  with  flat  wood  in 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION.  43 

geometric  forms,  or  small  models  of  useful  articles,  and  wood- 
carving,  are  undertaken.  In  others  the  interest  is  devoted  to 
color  work  and  design  with  fresco  paints ;  in  others,  notably  the 
Italian  districts,  clay  modelling  and  plaque  relief  forms  are 
frequent ;  in  one  school  quite  remarkable  work  has  been  done  in 
connection  with  nature  study ;  in  others  black-board  sketching  has 
supplied  the  manual  training  and  art  work  for  the  lower  gram- 
mar grades.  Geographical  illustration  in  clay,  the  construction 
of  models  in  wood  or  card-board  to  illustrate  the  principles  of 
physics  or  machinery,  drawing  in  color,  with  pressing  and  mount- 
ing of  flowers  for  various  lines  of  botanical  study,  arrangement 
of  specimens  in  science,  and  so  forth,  have  furnished  the  motive 
of  manual  training  in  many  schools. 

The  Springfield  schools  have,  for  the  lower  grammar  grades,  a 
course  in  whittling  at  the  ordinary  desk  and  in  the  ordinary  class- 
room. The  Northampton  course  is  a  logical  sequence  in  wood- 
working with  the  knife,  through  every  grade  ;  it  is  artistic  as  well 
as  scientific  in  tendency. 

The  Connecticut  model  schools  introduce  sloyd  for  children 
from  ten  to  fourteen  years  old,  using  the  saw,  file,  plane  and 
chisel.  The  Eva  Rodhe  models,  endorsed  by  the  Naas  school, 
are  for  children  from  five  to  ten,  with  tools  adapted  to  their  use. 
The  object  made,  rather  than  the  exercise  or  tools  mastered,  has 
been  emphasized  in  these  sloyd  courses,  in  order  to  secure  the 
child's  interest,  and  strengthen  the  moral  motive. 

Some  primary-school  courses  include  kitchen  gardening  and 
elementary  housewifery.  The  Landreth  School,  of  Philadelphia, 
trains  the  younger  girls  to  set  and  clear  a  lunch  table,  wash  dishes 
and  keep  a  room  in  order,  decorate  the  teacher's  desk  and  wait 
upon  visitors,  as  well  as  attend  to  the  detail  of  daily  school-room 
service.  This  kind  of  instruction  is  a  part  of  the  kindergarten 
idea  of  social  education. 

A  number  of  published  courses  of  manual  training  foi  primary 
and  lower  grammar  grades,  or  advanced  kindergarten  occupations, 
have  been  given  to  the  public.  "Primary  Methods,"  by  Dr. 
^y.  N.  Hailmann,  shows  how  the  occupations  of  the  kindergarten 
can  be  applied  to  language,  number,  nature  study,  geography  and 


44  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

so  forth.  Miss  Marwedel's  "  Missing  Link "  carries  the  kinder- 
garten occupations  forward  with  study  of  form  and  color, 
woodwork  in  grotesque  forms  simulating  movements  of  life, 
nature  study,  etc.  Mr.  George  Eicks  of  London  has  set 
forth  a  course,  in  his  "Hand  and  Eye  Training,"  which  makes 
much  of  block  building  as  a  means  of  mechanical  and  architect- 
nral  training,  connected  with  drawings  of  plans  and  elevations, 
object  drawing  for  perspective  with  design  and  historic  ornamen- 
tation, —  a  complete  course.  The  same  book  emphasizes  the 
elements  of  color  and  conventional  design  and  card-board  work  as 
adapted  to  grammar-school  grades. 

Professor  Hewitt  of  Liverpool  has  published  a  treatise  on 
manual  training  for  intermediate  grades. ,  In  this  book  we  have  an 
admirable  series  of  carefully  arranged  exercises  on  paper  cutting 
and  folding,  modelling  in  clay,  drawing,  lath  bending,  etc.,  which 
cannot  fail  to  interest  and  amuse  the  dullest  pupil.  The  exer- 
cises, too,  are  so  carefully  selected  that  the  instruction  imparts  a 
good  foundation  knowledge  of  the  truths  of  geometry. 

The  study  and  use  of  color  is  a  most  important  educational 
element  in  manual  training.  It  should  begin  with  the  kindergar- 
ten and  extend  through  every  grade.  The  training  of  the  sight, 
together  with  the  color  sense,  should  be  simultaneous  with  the 
training  of  the  hand  in  applying  color.  The  study  of  the  standard 
colors  of  the  spectrum  should  be  introduced  into  the  kindergarten 
occupations  of  weaving,  of  sewing  and  of  paper  cutting  and 
design  ;  tints  and  shades  of  color,  secondary  and  tertiary  colors, 
should  be  made  further  subjects  of  study  in  the  primary  school, 
and  the  application  of  the  spectrum  to  design  and  representative 
drawing  should  carry  with  it  a  growing  appreciation  of  harmony 
and  delicacy  of  color.  The  use  of  colored  crayons  in  free-hand 
drawing,  or  the  use  of  the  brush  in  the  application  of  pigments, 
involves  most  careful  training  of  the  color  perception  and  of  the 
hand.  The  appreciation  of  color  and  the  harmonious  rendering 
of  the-  coloring  of  nature  in  free-hand  drawings  with  the  brush 
from  the  direct  study  of  natural  forms  educates  the  aesthetic  sense, 
and  leads  to  the  highest  interpretation  and  correlation  of  science 
and  art.     In  the  use  of  the  brush  great  care  is  necessary  ;  putting 


rtroUSTKlAL   EDUOATIOK.  45 

washes  of  color  on  to  definite  outlines  of  form  involves  most 
exact  manipulation,  and  gives  a  very  close  training  of  the 
hand.  A  course  of  work  in  color,  by  S.  W.  Tilton  of  Boston, 
presents  a  well-graded  and  related  system  of  the  use  of  the 
brush,  and  carries  with  its  progressive  lessons  the  thorough 
training  of  the  eye  and  hand,  the  careful  and  sympathetic  ob- 
servation of  natural  and  artistic  forms,  and  the  cultivation  of 
the  sense  of  beauty  and  harmony,  which  is  in  the  highest  de- 
gree developing  to  the  spiritual  nature.  The  element  of  color 
is  strongly  developed  in  our  best  courses  of  hand  and  eye  train- 
ing, both  in  this  country  and  in  Europe,  and  is  recognized  as 
essential  to  the  true  study  of  form  and  the  best  results  in 
manual  training  in  school  education. 

No  arbitrary  forms  or  symbols  should  be  imposed  upon  the  child 
for  manual  representation.  He  should  observe  natural  forms  until 
he  apprehends  their  typical  character.  The  sphei'e  should  be 
shown  in  the  bubble,  the  drop,  the  leaf  cell,  before  its  artificial 
representation  is  forced  upon  his  attention.  He  can  mould  it  in 
the  hollow  of  his  palm  before  he  attempts  to  copy  it  as  a  model. 
The  cube  and  other  symmetrical  forms  should  be  presented  to  him 
by  the  mineral  or  the  plant  form,  and  then  by  its  production  by 
pressure  from  the  sphere.  The  cylinder  should  appeal  to  him  in 
the  form  of  nature  before  being  put  into  his  hands  as  a  type  form. 
The  tree  trunk,  the  grass  stem,  will  reveal  it  to  him  as  a  prolonged 
cell  and  a  common  form  of  plant  life.  The  egg  is  nature's  perfect 
ovoid.  The  stalactite,  the  sand  heap  in  the  hour  glass,  are  photo- 
types of  the  pyramid,  and  show  the  process  of  formation  as  well 
as  the  arrangement  of  parts.  In  fact,  we  should  begin  with  the 
discovery  of  the  phototypes  in  nature,  rather  than  with  the  type 
models  of  art.  The  discovery  of  the  action  of  natural  forces 
Which  produce  typical  forms,  such  as  the  rotation  of  a  straight 
line  in  a  given  plane  about  a  fixed  point  to  produce  the  circle,  the 
rotation  of  a  semi-circle  about  an  axis  to  produce  the  sphere,  the 
rotation  of  a  rectangular  plane  about  an  axis  to  produce  a  cylin- 
der, the  rotation  of  a  triangle  about  an  axis  to  produce  a  cone,  the 
equal  and  opposite  pressure  upon  a  sphere  to  produce  a  cube,  the 
same  upon  a  cone  to  produce  a  pyramid,  etc.,  may  lead  the  child 


4:(j  MANUAL    TEAES-IXG   AXD 

to  recognize  the  typical  character  of  these  forms  before  he  is  pre- 
sented with  their  artificial  models.  The  child  should  begin  with 
nature  in  his  approach  to  art,  and  not  with  conventional  patterns 
which  are  thrust  upon  him. 

In  the  choice  of  occupations  as  means  of  manual  training,  some 
regard  should  be  paid  to  the  natural  and  available  industries  of 
the  place  or  the  people  where  the  child  is,  that  his  interest  may  be 
more  real,  and  that  the  idea  of  helpfulness  may  be  emphasized. 
Some  of  the  old  New  England  industries  may,  perhaps,  be  sub- 
stituted for  those  already  in  the  curriculum,  yet  never  for  the  mere 
accident  of  custom  if  not  as  good  educationally.  Plaiting  with 
straw  for  baskets  or  bonnets,  braiding  strips  of  cloth  for  rugs, 
knitting,  crocheting,  working  rugs  on  canvas  with  a  hoolv:  and  bits 
of  cloth  in  various  colors  and  patterns,  are  all  traditional  house- 
hold industries  of  New  England,  and  give  excellent  training  for 
the  hand  and  eye,  as  well  as  for  the  social  instinct.  Mosaic  work 
in  tiles  would  be  very  pleasant  and  educative  occupation  in  the 
schools,  and  might  be  made  decorative  to  the  school-room. 

In  the  various  occupations  laid  down  by  Froebel,  a  logical 
sequence  of  development  is  inculcated.  The  sewing,  the  block 
building,  the  paper  folding  are  to  be  carried  forward  by  a  definite 
series  of  steps  and  unfolding  of  design,  which  cultivates  the 
logical  sense  unconsciously,  and  leads  the  child  to  a  perception  of 
sequence  and  prepares  him  for  inductive  reasoning.  This  idea  of 
development  should  be  continued  throughout  the  manual  training 
of  the  schools.  It  is  made  the  chief  factor  in  the  sloyd  work,  and 
dominates  every  other  purpose. 

After  the  adoption  of  the  kindergarten  into  the  Boston  school 
system  it  became  evident  that  manual  training  must  be  carried  up 
into  the  primary  grades.  A  course  of  exercises  was  personally 
initiated  in  1888  by  the  present  writer,  and  in  1889  it  was  formu- 
lated by  her,  in  outline,  for  the  "Boston  Course  of  Study."  It 
was  ordered  in  all  the  primary  schools  in  1890,  and  the  course 
elaborated  in  detail  by  Mrs.  Caroline  F.  Cutler.  This  detailed 
course  was  connected  with  that  of  drawing  already  in  the  schools, 
and  was  published  as  a  manual  which  is  now  in  use  in  the  Boston 
schools.     The  Boston  primary  manual  training  course  has  been 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATIOJf.  47 

adopted  literally  by  various  cities  all  over  the  country.  This 
course,  with  others,  is  given  in  Appendix  M.  Photographs  of 
Mrs.  Cutler's  course  are  also  given.     (See  Appendix  N.) 

The  "  Prang  Course"  in  form  study  offers  a  series  of  exercises 
which  have  in  them  very  largely  the  element  of  manual  training, 
and  which,  are  easily  affiliated  with  much  broader  manual-training 
exercises,  as  well  as  developed  in  any  one  direction,  according  to 
the  conditions  of  the  school  or  aptitude  of  the  pupil.  This  series 
puts  distinct  emphasis  on  the  development  of  the  child  through  his 
aesthetic  feelings,  and  creative  activities  as  expressing  those  feel- 
ings. The  industrial  idea  is  not  lost  sight  of,  but  in  the  early 
stages  of  the  work  is  of  the  least  prominence,  and  subordinated 
to  ideas  of  beauty.  As  the  "Prang  Course"  is  the  only  course 
thoroughly  presented  by  charts  from  kindergarten  to  high  school, 
it  is  shown  in  Appendix  N  by  photographs,  with  an  explanation 
of  its  motive,  quoted  from  the  "  Kindergarten  Magazine,"  and 
written  by  Mrs.  Mary  D.  Hicks,  director  of  the  Prang  normal  art 
classes. 

Conditions  for  Manual  Training. 
The  relation  of  manual  training  to  every  department  of  educa- 
tion should  be  close  and  continuous.  In  respect  to  physical  train- 
ing, of  which  it  is  a  part,  the  offices  should  be  mutually  helpful. 
Exercises  of  the  whole  body,  with  reference  to  the  harmonious 
activity  of  all  parts ;  corrective  training  of  posture  and  move- 
ments, to  balance  any  one-sided  development  incident  to  manual 
training;  lung  exercises  in  pure  air  before  and  after  manual- 
training  lessons ;  sitting  and  standing  exercises,  counteracting 
habitual  postures  of  hand  and  arm  in  manual  training  ;  corrective 
exercises  in  looking  at  objects  from  a  distance,  after  the  short 
range  of  vision  required  by  the  use  of  hand  tools,  or  of  looking 
with  both  eyes  or  with  one  eye  less  used ;  hygienic  practice  in 
thorough  cleanliness,  giving  flexibility  and  other  right  conditions 
for  healthful  physical  training,  —  all  these  should  accompany,  or 
■rather  underlie,  all  manual  training.  The  schools  of  England  and 
Sweden  present  a  lesson  in  this  direction  for  American  schools. 
The  basin,  wash-cloth,  soap  and  towel  for  each  individual  pupil, 


48  MANTJAI.    TRAINING   AND 

the  bathing  appointments  —  tubs,  swimming-tanks,  etc.  —  in  every 
school,  show  a  great  advance  in  hygienic  provision  over  our  own 
accommodations  ;  the  lighting  of  school-rooms  arranged  under  the 
direction  of  oculists  as  well  as  architects,  also  the  play -grounds 
and  physical  appliances  and  accommodations,  give  evidence  of  a 
care  for  the  health  of  the  child  which  we  have  not  yet  assumed. 
All  these  lines  of  development  should  proceed  conjointly  with 
manual  training,  in  order  to  secure  the  best  results. 

in  much  of  the  work  hitherto  mentioned,  manual  training  is 
recognized  as  a  method  rather  than  an  end,  and  it  is  taking  its 
place  in  our  curriculums  as  a  plan  of  development  in  every  line  of 
work.  All  the  detail  of  subject  or  system  is  as  yet  an  experi- 
ment ;  the  plan  most  wisely  educational  is  the  best  plan  ;  but  that 
excellence  must  be  determined  in  a  large  measure  by  the  con- 
ditions of  the  school,  the  wants  of  the  children  and  the  aptness  or 
Opportunity  of  the  teacher,  as  well  as  by  the  practical  preparation 
which  it  provides  for  actual  life. 

In  formulating  courses  of  manual  training,  it  seems  especially 
important  to  recognize  also  the  spiritual  side  of  the  child's 
nature,  and  give  it  opportunity  for  development  by  providing  for 
the  exercise  of  the  eesthetic  faculties  as  well  as  the  moral  activities, 
and  furnishing  the  stimulus  of  beauty  in  all  study  of  form  and 
color  and  all  directions  of  manual  training.  This  would  involve 
placing  within  the  child's  reach  all  that  elevates  the  feelings  and 
embodies  the  highest  ideals.  If  possible,  give  to  the  humblest  of 
our  children  the  advantage  of  the  supreme  culture  of  the  world  in 
literature  and  art  to  guide  them  in  the  recognition  of  the  best 
standards,  and  to  point  them  to  the  masterpieces  of  the  race.  By 
so  doing  we  give  the  child  his  right  to  freedom  of  growth  under 
the  best  conditions  through  which  his  creative  impulses  will  be 
ennobled  and  strengthened,  while  his  hands  are  made  skilful  to 
express  them  for  the  moral  and  spiritual  benefit  as  well  as  the 
intellectual  and  material  progress  of  the  community,  as  he  grows 
into  his  relations  with  the  life  of  the  world.  All  these  avenues 
to  physical  and  spiritual  culture  must  be  kept  open,  in  order  to 
purify,  enrich  and  elevate  a  course  so  tangibly  embodied  and  so 
easily  made  materialistic  and  mechanical.      Hygienic  conditions 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  49 

must  be  given  to  labor  and  an  artistic  tendency  to  industry  through 
the  methods  of  manual  training  in  the  schools.  To  this  end 
access  should  be  given  to  our  public-school  children  to  museums 
not  only  of  mechanical  inventions  but  of  science  and  art. 

Moral  Result  of  Manual  Training. 

Occupation,  although  the  passive  side  of  manual  training,  is  yet 
the  salvation  of  disciplinary  methods.  Give  the  child  a  tool,  you 
at  once  differentiate  him  from  the  animal ;  he  begins  to  feel  his 
human  capacity  and  his  human  relations  ;  he  wants  to  work  out 
his  ideas  and  give  tangible  shape  to  his  thought,  to  communicate 
what  he  knows,  and  become  a  unit  in  the  unity  of  human  brother- 
hood. Fraternal  industry  is  the  watch-word  of  our  times.  A  few 
principles  and  simple  tools  give  the  key  to  all  trades  and  arts. 
The  boy  must  know  how  to  take  his  place  in  the  economy  of  the 
household.  Give  him  the  saw,  the  plane  and  the  hammer.  Let 
him  take  his  knife  out  of  his  pocket,  and  turn  it  to  good  account. 
Let  the  girl  learn  housewifery,  sewing  and  cooking,  that  the  home 
may  be  a  beneficent  factor  in  our  private  and  public  life. 

"  The  exercises  in  manual  training,"  says  the  "  Boston  Course 
of  Study,"  "  are  a  means  not  only  of  physical  and  intellectual  but 
of  rporal  culture.  They  train  to  habits  of  accuracy,  neatness, 
order  and  thoroughness ;  they  exercise  the  judgment,  will  and 
conscience ;  they  present  an  incentive  to  good  work  in  all 
directions,  and  offer  a  moral  stimulus  and  preparation  for  useful- 
ness at  home  and  in  the  community." 

The  children  are  taught  to  love  tangible  work,  —  and  what  child 
does  not?  They  are  trained  to  be  apt  in  applying  their  construc- 
tive and  originative  powers  to  the  material  about  them.  They  are 
related  to  the  industries  which  develop  all  our  resources  ;  they  are 
given  mastery  of  all  their  active  powers.  They  learn  the  elements 
of  labor  and  sei'vice  in  which  all  share. 

All  our  present  efforts  at  industrial  education  are  in  the  interest 
of  homes  that  shall  save  men  from  vice,  society  from  disorder 
and  the  laborer  from  despair.  Skill  at  some  trade,  aptness  at 
some  hand-work,  the  ability  to  support  one's  self,  to  do  something 
which  has  a  market  value,  is  a  great  preventive  of  crime.     "Who 


50  MAXUAL   TEAINING  AND 

can  point  to  a  skilled  mechanic  of  good  habits  and  available 
health  whose  family  are  beggars  ?  Systematic  labor,  work  for  a 
purpose  not  merely  mechanical  but  scientific  in  method,  is  the  out- 
come of  manual  training  in  the  schools. 

Testimony  of  Boston  teachers  after  the  initiation  of  manual 
ti-aining  in  the  lower  schools  :  — 

"  The  boys  looked  forward  with  great  pleasure  to  the  privilege 
of  using  the  tools.  Many  times  they  would  voluntarily  remain 
after  school  to  finish  the  articles  they  had  begun." 

"The  beneficial  effect  of  this  work  on  the  pupil  is  surprising; 
whereas,  before  it,  there  had  been  cases  of  truancy  which  were 
considered  incorrigible,  and  corporal  punishments  were  of  daily 
necessity,  after  it  not  a  case  of  truancy  occurred,  nor  was  corporal 
punishment  once  necessary." 

Much  testimony  has  come  to  hand  in  cases  of  children  of 
deficient  intellectual  development  whom  the  simple  forms  of 
manual  training  have  been  potent  to  arouse  and  stimulate.  Such 
children  have  advanced  in  their  power  to  learn  by  exercising  their 
power  to  do. 

Manual  training  and  physical  training  offer  a  solution  of  the 
moral  problem  of  school  education.  Orderly  hand-work  is  regen- 
ei'ative  when  all  directly  ethical  means  are  of  no  avail  to  build  up 
character.  Its  material  advantages  are  so  plain  that  they  need  no 
recital ;  its  educative  power  is  what  most  concerns  us  in  the  con- 
sideration of  our  school  courses. 

Conclusions. 
From  these  various  considerations  it  becomes  evident  that  man- 
ual training,  in  order  to  be  effective  as  an  educational  method, 
must  connect  itself  with  all  branches  of  study  ;  that  it  must  be 
well  conditioned  morally,  physically  and  socially,  and  develop  in 
three  directions,  —  namely,  industry,  science  and  art.  The  indus- 
trial element  must  become  fraternal,  must  connect  the  child  with 
his  fellows,  and  prepare  him  to  be  a  worker  and  helper  in  the  com- 
munity of  practical  life  ;  the  scientiSc  element  must  connect  the 
child  with  nature,  and  prepare  him  for  discovery  and  creative 
skill,  that  he  may  add  to  the  resources  of  common  life  and  minis- 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION.  51 

ter  to  the  common  good ;  the  artistic  element  should  connect  him 
with  the  ideal  in  all  things,  and  lead  him  to  spiritual  culture 
and  influence  for  the  elevation  of  mankind.  Thus  the  child  is 
related  throughout  his  school  education  to  nature,  to  man  and  to 
God. 

Taking  the  kindergarten  occupations  as  a  starting-point,  we 
may  follow  them  out  in  this  three-fold  development,  by  progres- 
sive exercises  and  more  and  more  resisting  material  demanding 
more  and  more  complex  tools  and  ever-increasing  skill  and  higher 
results,  both  educational  and  practical.  The  result  of  a  course  of 
training  with  tools  is  a  mastery  over  one's  powers  as  well  as  over 
the  material  handled.  Self-respect  is  induced,  which  should  never 
be  carelessly  overthrown  by  treating  with  indifference  or  rudeness 
anything  which  has  been  conscientiously  made  by  the  child,  as 
such  treatment  destroys  the  interest  and  frustrates  the  moral  pur- 
pose of  the  work.  A  few  exercises  with  simple  tools  give  the 
key  to  all  trades.  The  psychological  result  is  broad  and  distinct, 
and  builds  up  mental  strength  and  adaptability.  The  moral  result 
is  to  awaken  a  feeling  of  conscience,  power  and  self-control,  to 
train  the  will  to  instant  efficiency  and  the  moral  discrimination  to 
keen  and  sure  judgment. 

Sewing. 

The  first  branch  of  industrial  education  which  found  a  place  in 
the  schools  of  Boston  was  sewing  for  girls.  As  early  as  1835  the 
girls  of  the  second  and  third  classes  of  the  grammar  schools  were 
instructed  in  sewing  and  knitting  by  their  regular  teachers,  one 
hour  a  day.  In  1854  a  petition  was  presented  to  the  school  com- 
mittee by  a  large  number  of  Boston  women,  which  resulted  in  the 
establishment  of  sewing  for  all  fourth-class  grammar-school  girls, 
two  hours  a  week,  under  the  instruction  of  a  special  teacher  for 
each  school. 

At  the  instigation  <K  Mr.  Robert  Swan,  master  of  the  Win- 
throp  School,  in  1872,  the  sewing  and  other  industrial  education 
was  made  legal  by  an  act  of  the  General  Court  of  Massachusetts, 
entitled  "  An  Act  to  authorize  cities  and  towns  to  establish  indus- 
trial schools  "  (1872,  chapter  86),  and  reading  as  follows  :  — 


52  MA^^UAL    TKAINING   AND 

The  city  council  of  any  city  and  any  town  may  establish  and 
maintain  one  or  more  industrial  schools,  and  raise  and  appropriate 
the  money  necessary  to  render  them  efficient.  Such  schools  shall 
be  under  the  superintendence  of  the  board  of  school  committee  of 
the  city  or  town  wherein  they  are  established,  and  such  board  shall 
employ  the  teachers,  prescribe  the  arts,  trades  and  occupations  to 
be  taught  in  such  schools,  and  shall  have  the  general  control  and 
management  thereof :  provided,  that  in  no  case  shall  the  expense 
of  any  such  school  exceed  the  appropriation  specifically  made 
therefor ;  and  provided,  that  nothing  in  this  act  contained  shall 
authorize  the  school  committee  of  any  city  or  town  to  compel  any 
scholar  to  study  any  trade,  art  or  occupation  without  the  consent 
of  the  parent  or  guardian  of  such  scholar,  and  that  attendance 
upon  any  such  school  shall  not  take  the  place  of  the  attendance 
upon  public  school  required  by  the  law. 

By  this  act  Massachusetts  took  the  lead  in  public  industrial 
education  in  this  country. 

In  1873,  upon  application  of  Mr.  Swan,  a  teacher  was  appointed 
in  that  school  for  every  class,  teaching  the  highest  classes  to  cut 
and  fit  their  own  dresses.  In  1876,  instruction  in  sewing,  two 
hours  a  week,  to  the  three  lower  classes  in  the  grammar  school, 
was  established  by  the  school  committee.  Since  that  year  it  has 
increased  steadily  in  efficiency  in  all  the  schools. 

The  cost  of  material  for  all  the  schools  is  but  a  little  over  two 
hundred  dollars  a  year  ;  the  salary  of  a  teacher  from  five  hundred 
to  one  thousand  dollars,  according  to  the  number  of  hours  she  is 
employed.  The  cost  of  material  in  the  Boston  schools  is  less  than 
one  dollar  per  class  for  one  year,  and  tlie  average  number  of 
pieces  made  each  year  nearly  two  thousand  per  school. 

To  the  Winthrop  School,  through  the  untiring  energy  and 
benevolence  of  its  master,  sustained  by  the  charity  and  sympathy 
of  the  women  of  Boston,  and  especially  of  Mrs.  Mary  Hemenway, 
is  dhie  the  honor  of  beginning  and  leading  in  this  useful  and 
honorable  work.  The  evident  need  of  some  practical  training  for 
girls  in  domestic  employment  was  its  immediate  inspiration.  The 
purpose  was  not  so  much  educational  as  utilitarian  and  industrial. 
The  instruction  has  been  individual,  even  with  large  classes,  and 
the  children  have  always  been  led  to  make  useful  household 
articles  and  garments,  and  to  acquire  skill  in  plain  needlework. 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION.  53 

Mr.  Swan  has  spread  the  knowledge  of  this  department  all  over 
the  land  by  sending  reports  of  its  operation  to  school  committees 
and  superintendents,  and  by  showing  the  work  to  visitors  from  all 
parts  of  the  world.  Almost  every  large  city  and  town  in  the 
country  has  applied  to  Boston  for  information  in  regard  to  the 
establishment  of  this  department  of  school  instruction,  and  the 
Boston  school  sewing  exhibits  have  won  prizes  at  every  large 
industrial  and  educational  exposition  for  several  years. 

Sewing  is  now  a  part  of  the  regular  instruction  in  the  kinder- 
garten and  primary  schools,  where  it  is  carried  on  by  the  regular 
teachers,  both  for  boys  and  girls.  Classes  for  boys  have,  in  some 
cases,  been  formed  in  the  grammar  schools  for  instruction  in 
sewing,  and  have  found  aptness  and  enjoyment  in  the  work. 

Sewing,  as  a  branch  of  domestic  industry,  is  carried  on  in  girls' 
schools  in  England  and  on  the  Continent.  In  England,  Belgium 
and  France  the  instruction  extends  to  embroidery  and  artistic 
work.  Advanced  needlework  is  offered  as  part  of  the  course  of 
Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia,  of  the  Pratt  Institute  of  Brooklyn 
and  others  in  this  country,  also  in  the  South  Kensington  School 
of  Art  Needlework,  and  many  of  the  schools  of  Paris.  Some 
account  of  such  work  is  given  in  the  records  of  the  investigations 
of  this  Commission  during  the  summer  of  1892.  (See  Appendix 
M.)  Some  courses  in  this  country  have  a  more  educational 
motive  than  others.  The  Brookline  course  is  perhaps  the  most 
progressive.* 

Cookery. 

Instruction  in  cookery  was  first  given  to  public-school  children 
in  this  country  under  the  auspices  of  the  Young  Women's  Christian 
Association,  in  1880.  In  1883  the  North  Bennet  Street  Indus- 
trial School  established  instruction  in  cookery  for  classes  from 
the  public  schools.  In  the  summer  of  1885  a  vacation  cookery 
school  was  established  by  Mrs.  Hemenway.  It  was  thoroughly 
equipped,  and  in  the  fall  was  offered  for  the  use  of  Boston 
schools.  The  school  committee  accepted  it  under  the  name  of 
"  Boston  School  Kitchen,  No.  1."     Pupils  were  sent  from  several 

*  The  Brookline  and  Boston  courses  have  been  recently  fully  presented  in  illus- 
trated text-books  jjublished  in  Boston. 


54  MANUAL    TRAINING  AND 

schools,  at  the  rate  of  one  hundred  a  week.  This  school  was 
supported  by  Mrs.  Hemenway  for  three  years,  until  its  industrial 
and  educational  advantages  were  fully  demonstrated,  and  in  1888 
the  city  assumed  the  charge  of  the  school,  having  established 
similar  schools  in  South  Boston  and  Roxbury,  followed  later  by 
others  in  Charlestown,  AUston  and  East  Boston.  Cookery  is  now 
a  regular  branch  of  instruction  for  all  girls  in  the  second  and  third 
classes  of  the  Boston  schools.  In  some  cases  boys  are  members 
of  the  cookery  classes.  Mrs.  Hemenway  has  also  established  a 
normal  school  of  cookery,  from  which  competent  teachers  are 
supplied.  The  examinations  for  cookery  teacher's  certificate,  like 
those  for  sewing  teacher's  certificate,  require  an  equivalent  of  the 
grammar-school  course  of  study,  with  special  examination  in 
domestic  and  household  economy,  principles  and  processes  of 
cookery,  and  chemistry  and  physiology  as  applied  to  cooking. 

Instruction  in  cookery  has  been  established  in  England  for  some 
years.  The  Northern  Union  of  schools  of  cookery,  established  in 
1876,  includes  many  training  schools  which  have  supplied  teachers 
for  all  the  world,  and  set  the  standards  of  courses  in  cookery  and 
housewifery.  Cooking  now  holds  a  high  position  in  the  educa- 
tional code  of  Europe.  Glasgow,  Liverpool  and  South  Kensing- 
ton have  qualified  more  teachers  than  any  other  schools.  The 
requirements  of  these  schools  have  been  largely  adopted  by  the 
cookery  courses  of  our  own  cities. 

Belgium  and  France  have  been  prominent  in  establishing  this 
department  in  the  public  schools.  Laundry  work  is  usually  con- 
nected with  cookery  in  the  curriculum  of  European  schools  and 
some  American  schools,  but  here  it  does  not  prevail.  In  this 
country  a  few  Eastern  colleges  for  women,  many  "Western  agri- 
cultural colleges,  the  Drexel  Institute  of  Philadelphia  and  the 
Pratt  Institute  of  Brooklyn,  give  courses  in  domestic  science  and 
arts.  In  our  own  State  no  one  has  done  more  to  awaken  an 
interest  in  the  educational  value  of  domestic  science  and  to  initiate 
its  courses  in  advanced  institutions  for  women  than  Mrs.  Ellen  H. 
Richards,  instructor  in  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. 
Her  monograph  entitled  "  Domestic  Economy  in  Public  Educa- 
tion," published  in  1889  by  the  New  York  College  for  the  Training 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATIOIsr.  55 

of  Teachers,  is  the  most  noteworthy  contribution  to  the  subject, 
and  is  presented  in  Appendix  N.  The  Drexel  and  Pratt  institute 
courses  of  domestic  science  are  given  as  models.  A  lecture  course 
on  house  decoration  is  also  presented  as  a  suggestive  plan  of  work 
in  such  a  department.     (See  Appendix  M.) 

An  estimate  of  equipment  and  cost  of  a  school  kitchen,  and 
of  the  running  cost  per  pupil  of  the  sewing  and  cooking  as  well 
as  the  kindergarten  departments  of  manual  training,  is  presented  in 
Appendix  N. 

In  England  and  in  this  country  the  department  is  provided  for 
in  the  public  schools  by  cooking  centres  or  school  kitchens,  which 
receive  classes  from  groups  of  schools,  with  a  permanent  teacher 
for  each  centre. 

Vacation  Industrial  Schools. 
Immediately  after  the  organization  of  this  Commission,  the 
writer  spent  some  days  in  visiting  vacation  industrial  schools  of 
Boston,  —  the  North  Bennet  Street  School,  the  Tennyson  Street 
School,  the  King  Street  School  in  Roxbury,  the  Warrenton  Street 
School  and  the  Waite  School  being  the  most  important  within  the 
city  limits.  These  are  each  supported  by  some  private,  charitable 
organization,  and  under  the  supervision  of  managers  appointed  by 
these  organizations.  Kindergartens  and  sand  gardens  are  well 
conducted  and  largely  attended  in  all.  Clay  modelling,  drawing, 
sloyd,  carpentry,  printing,  chair-seat  weaving,  shoemaking,  sew- 
ing, cooking,  kitchen  gardens,  dress  cutting  and  fitting  and  a  few 
minor  industries  are  carried  on  in  one  or  more  of  the  schools. 
The  schools  are  always  full  and  many  of  the  manual  training 
classes  crowded,  although  the  attendance  is  irregular.  It  is 
evident  that  children  who  would  otherwise  be  in  the  streets  all 
summer  are  here  occupied  happily  and  profitably,  and  the  school- 
rooms, otherwise  non-productive  for  weeks,  are  utilized  for  the 
good  of  the  community.  It  is  difficult  to  get  the  boys  out  of  the 
carpentry  classes  at  the  hour  for  closing,  as  they  take  such  interest 
in  the  work.  The  little  girls,  learning  how  to  keep  house,  to  set 
the  table,  to  wash  the  dishes,  wash  the  clothes,  make  the  fire, 
sweep,  dust,  etc.,  are  all  engrossed  in  busy  play ;  while  the  sewing 


5G  MANUAL    TRAINING    AND 

and  cooking,  the  printing  and  shoemaking  are  followed  with  eager 
interest  by  the  older  children.  On  the  whole,  we  are  convinced 
that  in  this  direction  a  most  valuable  field  of  operation  for  manual 
and  industrial  training  and  practical  use  of  our  otherwise  useless 
school  buildings  during  the  long  summer  vacation  invites  the 
attention  of  the  State,  for  the  benefit  of  thousands  of  children 
who  are  literally  vagrants  in  our  streets  during  that  time,  and 
perhaps  making  rapid  strides  in  criminal  habits,  incident  to  pro- 
tracted idleness  while  the  statutes  forbid  their  employment  as 
wage  earners. 

The  first  vacation  school  in  Boston  was  opened  by  Miss  M.  E. 
Very,  a  teacher  in  the  Hillside  Grammar  School.  This  was  carried 
on  unaided  for  a  few  years  at  the  North  End.  In  1881  a  kitchen 
garden  was  introduced,  through  the  kindness  of  Mrs.  Hemenway. 
The  school  committee  allowed  the  use  of  school-rooms,  and  the 
number  of  schools  increased  within  another  year  to  five.  As  to 
the  manner  of  conducting  the  school.  Miss  Very  wrote  :  — 

I  do  not  ask  the  children  to  commit  anything  to  memory  during 
July  and  August.  I  allow  them  to  whisper  and  move  about 
gently.  I  find  it  ver^  difficult  to  make  a  child  go  home  before 
the  school  closes.  That  is  my  only  punishment.  My  only  rules 
are  that  they  must  come  clean,  and  not  use  profane  language  or 
quarrel.  "We  sing  the  first  and  last  half  hour  of  every  day.  We 
have  kitchen-garden  work,  sewing,  drawing,  reading,  moulding 
with  clay,  assorting  of  squares  of  colored  paper,  playing  with  dis- 
sected pictures  and  other  kindergarten  occupations. 

This  is  the  first  recorded  manual  and  industrial  vacation  school 
for  little  children  in  Massachusetts. 

'  Permanent  Industrial  Schools. 

Many  industrial  schools  supported  by  private  enterprise  have 
been  established  both  in  this  country  and  Europe.  The  North 
Bennet  Street  and  Warrenton  Street  schools  have  been  for 
many  years  not  only  broad  practical  charities  in  Boston,  but 
nurseries  of  manual  tx*aining.  In  Liverpool  the  Day  Industrial 
and  the  Certified  Industrial  schools,  which  are  described  in 
Appendix    N,    present   some    interesting  features  for   considera- 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION.  57 

tion  in  this  country.  The  Maternal  Schools  of  Paris,  also  de- 
scribed in  the  account  of  personal  investigations  for  this  Com- 
mission, teach  several  practical  industries  for  girls.  (See 
Appendix  N.)  The  AVorkingmen's  School  in  New  York,  con- 
ducted by  Dr.  Felix  Adler,  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  these  schools 
in  this  country. 

For  the  Industrial  Schools  of  London  and  Liverpool,  see  records 
of  visits  in  the  interest  of  this  Commission,  also  reports  of  Day 
and  Certified  Industrial  schools  of  Liverpool,  in  Appendix  N. 

Normal  Industrial  Schools. 

The  Naas  School  of  Sloyd  in  Sweden,  the  University  College  of 
Liverpool,  the  New  York  Training  College  for  Teachers,  the  Pratt 
Institute  of  Brooklyn  and  the  Boston  Normal  Cooking  School  are 
among  the  most  prominent  institutions  for  normal  instruction  in 
various  branches  of  manual  training.  Technical  courses  in  kinder- 
garten, domestic  science  and  arts,  and  in  various  branches  of 
manual  training,  introduced  into  the  public  schools,  should  be  a 
part  of  our  normal  school  curriculum.  It  is  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance that  the  teachers  should  be  thoroughly  trained  on  special 
lines,  in  order  that  these  new  departments  and  methods  of  educa- 
tion shall  be  well  founded  and  conducted  in  our  public  schools. 

Domestic  science  and  arts  should  be  made  an  elective  course  in 
our  high  schools  and  colleges  for  girls,  or  special  schools  should  be 
established  for  such  courses.  "We  cannot  present  the  subject  bet- 
ter than  by  giving  the  curriculum  of  such  courses  as  have  been 
already  established,  and  referring  to  Mrs.  Richards'  monograph, 
given  in  Appendix  N. 


58  MANUAL   TRAINING   AND 


PART    III. 


By  GEORGE  E.  McNEILL. 


Social  and  Economic  Aspects. 

Civilized  and  enlightened  government  is  possible  only  where  the 
citizens  are  free  and  enlightened,  —  free  materially  as  well  as  politi- 
cally, and  enlightened  morally  as  well  as  intellectually.  These 
conditions  cannot  exist  where  the  great  masses  of  mankind  are 
dependent  upon  a  comparatively  small  class  of  their  fellow  citi- 
zens for  the  opportunity  to  labor,  or  the  means  to  acquire 
knowledge  and  property.  Free  government  means  free  training, 
and  enlightened  government  means  enlightened  training. 

The  men  who  landed  on  the  shores  of  Plymouth  were  divinely 
trained  and  led  in  matters  spiritual  and  fraternal,  and  were  as 
devoutly  led  in  matters  industrial  and  political.  The  Bible  and 
the  musket  rang  out  their  challenge  to  the  world. 

The  meeting-house  was  the  centre  of  the  democratic  union  of 
Church  and  State,  a  union  of  faith  and  works.  It  was  a  religion 
without  a  bishop  and  a  State  without  a  king.  The  colonists  had 
great  reverence  for  learning  and  no  less  respect  for  labor. 

The  "Puritan,"  sneered  at  by  the  dilletante  liberalists  of 
to-day,  was  a  hard  man, — hard  to  contend  with,  whether  in  the 
field  of  productive  labor  or  destructive  war,  in  religious  argument 
or  political  debate.  He  was  the  best  equipped  man  of  his  time. 
As  populations  increased  and  industries  became  more  diversified, 
his  adaptability  was  extended. 

Every  home  had  its  Bible,  its  library,  musket  and  tool  chest. 
Householders  were  landholders.  Children  were  nurtured  in  the 
fear  of  the  Loj'd,  in  habits  of  industry  and  frugality  and  a 
knowledge  of  letters.  They  were  trained  in  the  use  of  the  musket 
and  the  tools  of  industry.  They  of  necessity  kept  their  houses  in 
repair.  The  boys  in  such  homes  not  only  learned  the  art  of 
sawing  and  splitting  wood,  but  of  sharpening  the  ax  on  the  grind- 
stone and  the  saw  teeth  with  a  file. 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUOATION".  59 

The  school-house  was  an  important  part  of  the  democratic 
imity.  Upon  the  foundation  of  religion,  industry  and  learning 
rest  our  free  institutions.  From  a  race  of  men  so  trained  sprang 
the  men  and  women  who  wrested  peace  and  prosperity  from  the 
control  of  opposing  nature  and  wild  men.  From  the  meeting- 
house, the  school-house,  the  fields  and  the  ocean  graduated  the 
men  and  women  of  1776,  the  authors  of  our  political  indepen- 
dence, the  founders  of  our  States  and  the  creators  of  the  Union. 
For  over  two  hundred  years  men  thus  trained  and  cultured  held 
New  England  safe  from  external  and  internal  danger.  Work, 
worship  and  study  were  the  order  of  daily  life  and  the  means  of 
grace  through  which  to  attain  heaven.  Prayer  welcomed  the  day 
of  work  as  well  as  the  day  of  rest.  Ignorance  and  idleness  were 
considered  the  worst  of  carnal  vices.  Ben  Franklin's  proverbs 
were  but  the  pithy  presentation  of  a  secular  catechism  long  before 
in  practice. 

A  boy  of  twelve  years  of  age  who  could  not  use  the  tools 
required  for  the  manual  training  school  of  to-day  was  held  to  be 
below  par.  It  would  have  been  said  of  him  that  he  had  no 
"  gumption."  Boys  and  girls  were  the  home  helpers.  They 
were  trained  in  household  duties  from  their  earliest  years.  Boys, 
as  well  as  girls,  could  sew  and  knit,  and  many  of  the  boys  could 
cook.  They  braided  carpets  and  mats  for  home  use  and  adorn- 
ment. Children's  clothing  was  made  in  the  home  for  the  children 
of  the  home,  and,  although  such  clothing  was  not  as  stylish  as  the 
garments  of  to-day,  it  was  free  from  the  danger  and  misery  of 
to-day's  product  of  the  sweater's  den  and  tenement-house. 

In  the  memory  of  many  men  now  living,  the  common-school 
education  in  the  use  of  words  was  supplemented  by  the  family 
education  in  the  use  of  tools  and  implements,  school  and  family 
uniting  in  quickening  the  moral  perceptions  of  right  and  wrong. 
The  result  of  this  joint  cultivation  of  heart,  head  and  hand  is 
found  in  the  great  names  of  our  country's  history,  and  in  the 
advanced  moral,  intellectual  and  material  condition  of  our  people. 
As  a  rule,  our  great  men  have  been  educated  men,  not  learned 
men,  —  educated  in  the  school,  on  the  farm  and  in  the  work- 
shop,—  educated  in  dealing  with  men  and   things,  as  well  as  in 


GO  MANUAL   TEAINIXG   AND 

fundamental  principles.  To  the  common  people,  graduates  of  the 
family,  school  and  workshop,  are  we  indebted  for  the  civilization 
we  enjoy. 

The  congregation  of  populations  around  the  factories  ^nd  work- 
shops in  large  towns  and  cities,  and  the  increased  demand  for 
unskilled  laborers  in  commercial  and  transportation  centres, 
deprived  the  children  of  the  workers  of  the  joint  educational 
influences  of  home  and  school. 

The  carpenter,  blacksmith  and  shoe  shops  of  the  neighbors 
were  always  open  to  the  observation  and  often  to  the  use  of  the 
boys,  wherein  they  learned  something  of  the  use  of  wood,  iron 
and  leather,  and  the  processes  of  their  manufacture. 

In  the  crisis  of  the  Union,  men  were  found  in  the  ranks  of  the 
New  England  volunteers  who  could  do  any  kind  and  all  kinds  of 
work,  and  do  it  well,  not  only  because  many  of  the  men  were 
skilled  in  special  trade,  but  because  a  Yankee-trained  boy  is  full 
of  the  genius  of  invention  and  marvellous  adaptability  and  power 
of  execution.  A  pocket  jack-knife  was  a  part  of  every  boy's 
outfit.  Sloyd  was  and  is  practised  by  all  country  boys.  They 
made  boxes,  toy  boats,  boot-jacks,  traps,  sleds  and  carts,  and  an 
infinite  variety  of  toys  and  household  things.  They  commenced 
modelling  in  clay  at  kindergarten  age,  beginning  at  mud  pies 
and  working  up  to  marbles  and  even  to  dishes  for  play.  Drawing 
may  not  have  been  taught,  but  it  has  always  been  practised. 
Paper  hanging,  whitewashing  and  painting  were  often  a  part  of 
the  work  of  the  family.  Many  families  reserved  a  place  in  the 
barn  or  wood  shed  for  a  bench  and  tools,  and  many  hours  of 
manual  training  were  profitably  employed  and  enjoyed  in  these 
"  barn  chambers  "  or  work  laboratories. 

From  the  home  and  the  school  the  boy  graduated,  to  enter 
either  tlie  workshop  or  the  college. 

The  mechanic,  at  the  completion  of  his  apprenticeship,  was 
master  of  his  trade,  self-respecting  and  respected.  He  made  a 
whole  thing,  thus  developing  the  different  faculties  of  the  mind 
and  body,  the  diversity  of  his  employment  giving  zest  and  rest  to 
his  labor.  He  was  measurably  self-dependent,  and  therefore 
independent.     With  good  health,  a  good  trade,  a  good  character 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION.  61 

and  a  public-school  education,  he  was  the  peer  of  any  man,  a 
citizen  sovereign  in  wliose  hands  free  institutions  were  safe. 

The  manual  training  school  is  a  necessary  substitute  for  part  of 
that  which  has  been  lost  to  the  children  of  to-day. 

Under  the  old  system,  the  shoemaker  made  shoes,  the  carpenter 
built  houses.  Now  a  shoe  operative  repeats  one  process  upon  one 
given  part  of  the  shoe,  and  it  takes  about  one  hundred  shoe 
operatives  to  make  one  shoe.  The  carpenter  may  be  a  floor  layer, 
a  door  and  sash  maker  or  a  finisher,  but  rarely  will  he  be  a  carpen- 
ter and  joiner. 

The  wage  worker  of  to-day,  whether  a  hand  tool  or  a  steam  or 
electric  tool  worker,  is  less  and  less  required  to  depend  upon  him- 
self in  his  work ;  his  opportunities  of  development  in  his  work 
are  limited,  as  compared  to  those  of  former  times. 

The  monotony  of  the  present  process  of  production  leads  to 
demoralizing  excesses  in  many  directions  that  would  become  more 
disastrous  to  the  whole  community  but  for  the  opportunities  of 
the  trades  unions  and  reductions  in  the  iiours  of  labor. 

The  old  system  of  apprenticeship  and  the  old  system  of  em- 
ployment have  passed  away  forever.  The  present  system  of 
production  and  distribution  is  but  short-lived.  The  paramount 
question  of  to-day  is,  not  how  shall  wealth  be  more  rapidly  pro- 
duced, but  how  shall  the  qualities  of  manhood,  womanhood  and 
childhood  be  improved.  This  tlie  manual  training  system  seeks  to 
do  in  part. 

That  the  production  of  wealth  is  essential  to  the  development 
of  the  best  in  htimanity  is  evidenced  by  the  history  of  the  human 
family  ;  but  it  is  equally  true  that  wealth  is  most  rapidly  produced 
where  it  is  best  distributed,  and  that  wealth  is  best  distributed 
where  manhood  and  womanhood  are  best  developed. 

The  Chinese  know  how  to  write  and  read,  they  are  able  to  keep 
accounts  and  generally  conform  to  the  laws  of  their  community  ; 
yet  poverty  is  almost  a  universal  condition.  Tliey  have  skill  and 
adaptability  in  the  most  marked  degree,  their  mountains  are  full 
of  coal  and  iron,  vegetables  and  grain  abound  in  great  varieties, 
yet  these  millions  of  an  ancient  race  are  lowest  in  the  level  of 
civilization  of  any  nationally  organized  people. 


62  MANUAL   TRAXNTNG   AND 

Confucius  said  that  "  those  who  work  should  first  be  esteemed 
and  rewarded  by  the  measure  of  their  salary."  The  departure  of 
the  Chinese  from  this  principle,  enunciated  by  their  greatest  phi- 
losopher, and  the  method  and  scope  of  their  educational  system, 
has  led  to  poverty.  Or,  as  Dr.  Harris  says  :  "  Mere  prescription, 
mere  inhibitory  wiU-power,  developed  to  extremes,  produces  only 
a  mechanical  civilization,  —  a  dead  mechanical  state  of  social 
existence."  We  look  upon  the  Chinese  education  as  productive  of 
such  a  condition.  All  is  cut  and  dried  and  given  to  the  pupil  as  a 
ready-made  form,  into  which  he  must  fit  himself  by  inhibition  of 
natural  caprice  and  inclination.  The  consequence  is  the  least 
possible  progress  and  the  completest  administration  of  the  old 
system. 

The  dignity  of  the  citizen  and  not  the  dignity  of  his  product  is 
the  thing  to  be  taught.  If  we  take  care  to  develop  humanity,  aU 
producing  processes  will  take  care  of  themselves.  The  inventive 
power,  the  likeness  of  God  in  man,  is  possible  only  when  the 
human  soul  perceives  an  idea  and  works  out  its  application  to  a 
given  purpose.  Inventions  are  profitable  only  when  the  aspira- 
tions and  wants  of  a  large  number  of  persons  have  lifted  their 
earnings  to  the  higher  level  of  civilization. 

Handicraft,  as  a  means  by  which  the  masses  of  mankind  can 
earn  a  living,  is  being  replaced  by  machine-craft.  Machine-craft 
in  the  production  of  a  given  article  may  be,  and  sometimes  is,  a 
barrier  to  ability  in  operating  other  improved  machinery.  Machin- 
ery is  displacing  and  discharging  laborers  faster  than  new  employ- 
ments are  provided.  The  steam  shovel  and  other  appliances  are 
reaching  the  poorest-paid  and  hardest-worked  and  most  illiterate 
so-called  unskilled  workers. 

A  reaction  from  present  metliods  to  something  akin  to  the  old 
handicraft  system  is  as  possible  as  the  increase  of  illiteracy  and 
the  reduction  of  wages.  Handicraft  will  increase  in  new  direc- 
tions artward  as  the  hours  of  wage  labor  are  reduced  and  the  hours 
of  leisure  increased. 

Learning  a  trade  is  like  learning  a  dead  language,  useful  as  an 
accomplishment,  but  useless  as  an  investment,  save  as  it  inter- 
prets a  past  mystery  and  disciplines  the  learner. 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION.  63 

The  lack  of  skill  of  wage  earners  is  largely  caused  by  the  fact 
that  skill  has  no  permanent  value,  no  dignity,  no  appreciable 
approbation.  The  skill  acquired  after  years  of  work  may  be  ren- 
dered useless  as  a  means  of  earning  a  living  by  the  introduction 
of  machinery.  The  mind  and  the  muscles  of  the  workman  have 
been  trained  in  one  given  direction,  and  this  training  renders 
him  less  fit  for  the  operation  of  the  machine,  and  indeed  for  any 
other  occupation. 

The  plain  men,  labor  reformers,  who  studied  the  industrial  con- 
ditions and  the  evolutionary  processes  of  development,  foresaw 
that  adaptability  and  availability  were  worth  more  than  skilled 
abUity.  They  were  among  the  first  to  advocate  and  demand  the 
kindergarten  and  the  school  of  technology.  They  wrote,  lectured 
and  petitioned  that  the  school  should  be  the  place  of  resistance  to 
the  demoralizing  influences  of  the  rapidly  decaying  industrial  and 
social  system,  and  a  source  of  persistence  in  the  direction  of  the 
moralizing  influences  of  enlightened  civilization. 

That  some  workingmen  should  oppose  the  extension  of  school 
work  to  primary  preparation  for  manual  pursuits  was  to  be 
expected.  Men  whose  occupations  are  their  life  must  needs  be 
jealous  of  everything  that  tends  to  increase  competition.  They 
know  by  instinct,  if  not  by  experience,  that  wages,  under  the 
pressure  of  competition  with  other  laborers  in  the  same  craft,  will, 
like  water,  seek  its  lowest  outlet ;  and  they  feel  that  resistance 
to  lower  wages,  like  resistance  to  tyranny,  is  obedience  to  God. 
The  training  of  the  mind  to  comprehend  the  draft  of  a  thing  and 
the  training  of  the  hand  to  produce  it,  when  directed  in  any  one 
craft,  would  necessarily  increase  competition  in  that  occupation, 
and  at  first  the  school-taught  mechanic  would  feel  a  degree  of 
superiority  over  the  hap-hazard  mechanic  of  to-day.  The  em- 
ployer, in  turn,  would  give  preference  in  opportunity  to  the  former, 
but  would  only  maintain  that  preference  if  the  former  was  cheaper 
to  him  than  the  latter.  Under  the  present  industrial  system, 
cheap  labor  is  preferred  to  high-priced  skilled  labor,  and  constant 
effort  is  being  made  to  reduce  the  number  of  the  skilled.  As  a 
rule,  the  best  paid  skill  is  that  of  overseership,  that  is,  the 
ability  to  increase  production  to  the  maximum  and  to  reduce  the 


64  MANUAL   TRAIXrC^G   AKD 

cost  of  production  to  the  minimum.  The  first  requirement  in 
productive  enterprise  is  rapidity  of  production,  not  quality  of 
material  or  quality  of  workmanship.  The  standard  is  the  appear- 
ance of  the  product,  its  sale  value  and  not  its  use  value.  As  a 
rule,  shoddy  material  leads  to  shoddy  workmanship.  In  those 
subdivisions  of  a  craft  where  machinery  has  not  been  introduced, 
the  workmen  have  been  forced  to  increase  their  product  even  to 
one-third,  within  the  same  number  of  hours,  and  at  the  same  pay  ; 
to  accomplish  this  result  required  the  lessening  of  the  amount  of 
work  on  each  article.  Carelessness  of  workmanship  follows  this 
process,  and  soon  the  increased  amount  of  product  is  turned  oflf 
so  easily  that  wages  are  reduced,  because  less  skilled  men  will  do 
the  work  cheaper. 

Under  these  demoralizing  conditions,  workmen  with  any  proper 
ambition  wiU  seek  any  other  avenue  for  their  sons  than  that 
of  craftsman. 

The  demand  for  men  in  the  service  of  transportation  companies 
for  a  time  appropriated  a  large  number  of  young  men  from  the 
craft  pursuits,  at  wages  less  than  the  craftsman's,  the  difference 
and  more  than  the  difference  in  earnings  being  made  up  by  the 
amount  they  were  able  to  withhold  from  their  employers.  Clerk- 
ships offered  freedom  from  the  indignities  of  manual  labor, 
and  offered  the  same  temptation  of  increasing  their  earnings 
by  peculation.  The  cash  register  and  other  devices  have  reduced 
the  income  of  the  workers,  and  led  to  organization  for  increased 
wages. 

The  custom  of  giving  "  tips  "  and  presents  has  made  some  low- 
wage  occupations  more  desirable  and  profitable  than  many  skilled 
trades. 

The  piece-work  method  of  production,  acting  upon  the  working- 
man's  ignorance  of  the  laws  governing  wages,  is  operating  in  the 
same  direction,  —  a  reduction  of  wages  and  the  increase  of  pro- 
duction at  the  cost  of  value  to  the  consumers. 

Unlawful  pursuits  are  followed  by  hundreds  and  thousands  of 
men  who  could  and  would  have  been  good  mechanics  under  such 
conditions  as  would  make  the  exercise  of  skill  in  manual  labor 


INDUSTEIAL    EDUCATIOIS^.  65 

easy  of  attainment  and  profitable  and  honorable  in  use.  Petty 
larceny  is  the  outcome  of  the  pettiness  of  poverty,  and  grand  lar- 
ceny is  the  outcome  of  the  same  insane  greed  that  promotes  the 
speculative  enterprises.  Thousands  of  women  are  lost  to  society 
through  the  same  failure  of  society  to  supply  remunerative  and 
pleasurable  employment,  and  to  recognize  that  it  is  more  honor- 
able to  cook  a  good  dinner  than  to  preach  a  bad  sermon.  Super- 
intendent of  Police  Byrnes  of  New  York  says  :  "  There  are  forty 
thousand  unfortunate  women  in  New  York,  and  a  large  part  of 
them  would  lead  respectable  lives  if  they  could  secure  employment 
and  be  treated  like  human  beings.  The  greater  part  of  this  army 
is  driven  into  degraded  lives  because  they  cannot  make  a  living 
any  other  way." 

The  theory  of  the  superiority  of  human  development,  of  which 
the  manual-training  system  is  an  important  factor,  is  that  labor  is 
honorable,  and  that  all  men  —  laborers,  clergymen,  carpenters, 
teachers,  track  layers,  bankers,  bakers,  cooks  and  concert  singers 
—  should  have  the  fullest  opportunity  of  development,  physically, 
mentally  and  morally  ;  that  the  woman  who  brings  comfort  and 
beauty  to  the  home  is  more  worthy  of  respect  and  adulation  than 
the  woman  of  society  whose  only  claim  is  founded  in  the  extrava- 
gant expenditure  of  money. 

The  distaste  for  manual  labor  is  a  natural  and  proper  distaste, 
consequent  upon  its  demoralizing  effects  physically  as  well  as 
morally  and  socially.  Educated  laborers  will  aspire  to  more 
pleasurable  and  profitable  employments,  and  through  the  leaven- 
ing force  of  their  increased  power  will  vastly  improve  the  con- 
ditions of  the  less  educated. 

Our  public  schools  are  for  the  training  of  citizens,  not  mechanics, 
merchants,  lawyers  or  the  other  professions  ;  and  the  youth  is  not 
correctly  trained  who  enters  upon  the  duties  of  citizenship  with 
contempt  for  manual  pursuits.  He  is  not  sufficiently  trained  for 
citizenship  whose  acquirements  consist  in  memorizing  terms,  dates 
and  events.  To  know  how  to  compute  interest  on  money  is  less 
important  than  to  know  how  to  earn  a  living  ;  but  to  limit  educa- 
tion to  this  acquirement  is  to  degrade  the  man  to  the  level  of  the 


66  MANUAL    TE AUSTIN  G   AND 

beast.  Man  must  not  be  divorced  from  his  duty  to  society. 
"Man  has  two  selves;  one  his  natural  self,  a  puny  individual, 
and  another  his  higher  self,  embodied  in  institutions.  Education 
is  the  preparation  of  the  individual  for  reciprocal  union  with 
society,  —  the  preparation  of  the  individual  so  that  he  can  help 
his  fellowmen  and  in  turn  receive  and  appropriate  their  help." 

"  The  pen  is  mightier  than  the  sword  "  only  when  the  pen  tran- 
scribes grand  and  ennobling  thoughts  and  sentiments,  or  truly  de- 
scribes things  and  events.  To  know  how  to  read  is  important,  but 
to  know  what  to  read  and  how  to  analyze  it  is  an  essential  quali- 
fication for  citizenship  in  a  republic. 

It  is  well  to  know  how  to  measure  verse,  but  it  is  important  to 
know  how  to  measure  things,  and  yet  more  important  to  know 
how  to  measure  the  value  of  institutions.  "  If  things  and  reali- 
ties are  the  material  of  thought,  what  material  of  thought  is  so 
important  for  our  examination  as  human  institutional  growth  ?  " 

The  public  school  is  a  workshop,  play-ground  and  civic  society ; 
its  tools  are  books,  maps,  pens,  paper  and  pencils  ;  its  studies 
should  treat  of  men,  customs,  habits  and  institutions.  The 
friends  of  the  new  departure,  called  manual  training,  would  have 
the  public  understand  that  love  in  any  work  makes  a  thing  of 
beauty,  and  that  structures  like  the  Brooklyn  bridge  are  the 
Shakesperian  verse  of  the  nineteenth  century  ;  that  statesmanship 
is  grander  and  nobler  than  mere  literary  ability ;  that  human 
institutions,  habits  and  customs  are  man's  created  things,  — 
processes  of  centuries  of  the  best  work  of  all. 

The  people  should  be  taught  that,  as  Emerson  says,  "It  is 
genius'  instinct  to  find  beauty  and  holiness  in  new  and  neces- 
sary facts,  in  the  field  and  roadside,  in  the  shop  and  mill." 

Hamerton  writes  that  "Every  art  which  is  genuine,  and  the 
spontaneous  expression  of  a  people's  taste  and  feelings,  has  in  it 
some  pressure  and  incommunicable  quality,  which  is  a  part  of  the 
great  mind  of  humanity,  setting  itself  forth  in  the  most  perfect 
shape." 

The  argument  that  State  training  of  its  wards  for  citizenship 
should  be  limited  to  the  mere  ability  to  read,  write  and  compute 
numbers,  is  based  on  a  false  theory. 


rSTDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  67 

Our  free  public  schools  are  the  primary  training  places  of 
children  and  youth  for  citi2;enship,  and  that  State  fails  in  its  duty 
to  the  present  and  future  that  limits  such  training  to  the  mere 
text-book  instruction  in  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  geography, 
history  and  grammar. 

The  public  school  is  not  the  mere  feeder  of  colleges  ;  it  has  the 
larger  and  more  important  function  as  the  feeder  of  the  Com- 
monwealth. As  births  into  life  supply  the  wastes  by  deaths, 
so  births  into  education  supply  the  waste  by  ignorance.  The 
free  school  must  not  stand  as  the  poor  relation  of  the  college, 
to  be  fed  at  the  servants'  table  and  patronized  as  a  respectable 
pauper. 

The  free  common  school  taught  children  and  the  free  citizen 
soldiery  are  the  unconquerable  guardians  of  our  liberties. 

Citizen  soldiers  are  instructed  in  the  manual  of  arms  by  the  use 
of  arms,  and  their  physical  ability  as  an  armed  force  depends 
upon  the  practice  in  use  and  not  in  memorizing  the  instructions  of 
the  manual.  The  militia  are  to  be  ready  at  call  to  use  their 
knowledge  to  defend  the  State  ;  they  are  equipped  with  weapons 
and  disciplined  in  the  skill  of  their  use.  They  are  seldom  called 
to  use  their  skill,  but  the  training  and  the  equipment  are  never 
neglected. 

The  children  of  the  Commonwealth  are  trained  in  memorizing 
words,  numbers,  dates,  descriptions  and  rules,  but  not  in  the 
knowledge  of  the  use  of  such  instruments,  tools  and  appliances  as 
are  essential  to  protect  themselves  and  the  State  when  they  are 
called  into  active  life,  or  of  the  relations  they  bear  to  each  other 
as  members  of  one  body. 

The  Commonwealth  of  Massachusetts  stands  for  the  common 
profession  of  all  things,  powers  and  opportunities  that  would 
make  all  its  citizens  sovereign  possessors  of  common  education 
and  common  wealth,  in  which  "the  self -activities  of  the  individ- 
ual must  be  strictly  limited  by  the  necessities  of  perfect  central 
administration  for  the  good  of  the  whole." 

The  benefits  of  manual  training  will  be  found  in  increased 
ratio  of  the  knowledge  of  the  people  "  in  pure  science  and  human- 
ity."    Manual   training   does   not  mean   trade   training  or  tool 


68  MANUAL   TRAINING   AND 

training.  Tool  training  and  tool  knowing  are  the  introductory 
methods  of  expanding  the  mind  as  well  as  educating  the  hand. 

The  demand  for  reform  in  methods  of  school  training,  and  the 
extension  of  the  curriculum  to  the  knowledge  and  use  of  tools  and 
their  products,  is  not  a  new  demand.  The  writer  of  this  part  of 
the  report  attempted  twenty-two  years  ago  to  arouse  public  atten- 
tion to  the  importance  of  the  kindergarten  and  manual  instruction . 
As  some  of  the  thoughts  then  expressed  have  received  the  season- 
ing of  time,  he  inserts  them  here. 

Observation  and  experience  prove  that  if  we  would  know  how 
to  teach  we  should  first  know  how  to  learn,  for  "  Out  of  the  mouths 
of  babes  and  sucklings  proceedeth  wisdom."  It  is  because  school 
committees  examine  teachers  in  their  knowledge  of  text  questions, 
instead  of  their  knowledge  of  child  natures,  that  so  many  truants 
are  created. 

The  child  loves  to  learn,  and  would  soon  exhaust  our  limited 
supply  of  knowledge  if  we  could  but  listen. 

It  was  no  miracle  that  Christ,  at  twelve,  confounded  the  doctors 
by  asking  them  questions,  as  every  father  and  mother  can  testify. 
But  it  would  be  a  miracle  if  doctors  of  law  and  divinity,  school 
boards  and  school  committees,  should  learn  how  and  what  to 
teach  from  the  hints  of  childhood  and  youth. 

The  babe  teaches  the  mother  how  to  feed  it ;  the  mother  should 
know  how  much  and  how  often.  Nourishment  for  the  body  is  the 
first  requirement.  How  many  prospective  mothers  are  graduated 
with  a  knowledge  of  what  is  nourishing  and  what  is  not,  of  how  to 
feed  and  how  to  clothe  the  little  ones  ?  Yet  how  many  infants  die 
annually  because  of  ignorance  upon  these  two  important  matters. 

The  next  requirement  is  the  knowledge  of  how  to  play.  The 
piteous  pleading  of  children  hungry  for  amusement  is  heard  in 
every  household,  —  a  pleading  that  soon  changes  to  whining,  cry- 
ing and  quarrelling,  to  be  answered  back  with  punishment. 

At  last,  through  tribulation  and  torment,  the  school  age  is 
reached,  and  sentence  is  pronounced,  —  five  hours  each  day  in  the 
stocks,  or  desks,  as  they  are  politely  called.  Oh,  the  ache  of 
body  and  mind  of  the  little  prisoner,  as,  seated  bolt  upright,  his 
book  of  mystical  characters,  meaningless  and  void,  lying  open 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  69 

before  him,  he  tries  to  be  a  good  boy,  as  mother  told  him.  Thanks 
to  the  little  active  brain  that  so  often  plays  truant,  —  leaving  the 
unknown  a,  b,  c,  for  the  known  realities  of  apples,  berries  and 
candy,  —  he  is  saved  from  being  a  fool.  Listen  to  the  joyful 
shout,  mark  the  propelling  power  and  vigor  of  new-found  liberty, 
as  homeward  the  youngster  goes,  causing  parents  to  tremble  at 
the  thought  of  damaged  clothes,  bruised  flesh  and  broken  furni- 
ture, upon  which  outraged  nature  will  repay  itself.  Unmindful 
of  this  daily  recurring  scene,  thoughtless  of  results,  we  still  go 
on,  bragging  of  our  great  educational  advantages,  our  excellent 
school-houses  and  teachers,  of  the  great  amount  of  money 
expended,  of  the  excellent  learning  displayed  on  exhibition  days. 
Against  this  system,  and  the  theory  upon  which  it  is  founded, 
the  kindergarten  and  manual  training  schools  are  intelligent  pro- 
tests,—  protests  too  long  unheeded,  as  a  glance  into  the  appropri- 
ations of  the  different  States  will  reveal.  Vast  sums  are  annually 
given  to  colleges,  where  rich  men's  sons  are  educated ;  to  normal 
schools,  where  the  children  of  the  middle  class  are  graduated  ; 
and  in  many  States  not  one  cent  for  kindergarten  or  manual 
training  schools. 

As  a  result  of  this  experiment,  we  may  learn  how  to  teach 
teachers  and  how  to  exhibit  growth.  Then  shall  the  play  of  the 
children  be  looked  after,  and  the  barbarism  of  our  school  days  be 
abolished.  The  money  will  show  results  of  hardy,  robust  boys 
and  girls,  able  to  cope  with  life  and  its  responsibilities,  counting 
only  idleness  and  listlessness  degrading,  ennobling  labor  to  the 
high  standing  now  held  by  the  professions,  and  rendering  some  of 
the  occupations  and  professions  useless. 

To  do  this  is  the  work  of  time,  but,  once  begun,  the  people  will 
not  turn  backward.  The  first  step,  like  a  child's,  will  be  but  a 
feeble  effort,  but  boldness  and  strength  come  with  trying.  Enough 
has  been  done  to  help  the  helpful ;  something  must  be  done  to  help 
the  helpless. 

The  children  of  the  poor  are  the  most  helpless,  and  therefore 
should  be  the  first  to  receive  attention.  The  best  help  for  the 
poor  is  to  help  them  to  help  themselves,  not  by  saying  help,  but  by 
helping ;  and  this  must  not  be  by  a  pauperizing  charity,  but  by 


70  MAl^UAL    TRAINING   AND 

rendering  Christian  justice.  Justice  to  the  poor  does  not  mean 
annual  or  semi-annual  presents  from  those  higher  in  position ;  for, 
although  presents  among  equals  may  be  gratifying,  gifts  from 
superiors  to  inferiors  are  demoralizing,  and  dangerous  to  public 
weal.  The  laboring  poor  must  be  self-lifted  from  the  debasing 
influence  of  poverty  before  they  can  or  will  render  to  civilization 
the  full  meed  of  its  demands.  The  poverty  of  the  parents,  more 
than  any  other  cause,  compels  them  to  rob  their  children  of  the 
weapon  of  self-defence,  —  education,  —  and  leaves  them  with  but 
brute  force  for  protection. 

The  kindergarten  teaches  the  children  how  to  play,  how  to 
study,  making  all  interesting,  all  instructive,  all  better.  The 
manual  training  system  teaches  that  manual  labor  is  honorable 
and  can  be  made  pleasurable  and  profitable,  and  through  a  better 
knowledge  of  things  gives  us  new  and  enlarged  meaning  to  words. 

We  acquire  language  in  proportion  as  we  acquire  knowledge  of 
men,  things  and  principles. 

In  the  past,  the  accumulation,  combination  and  arrangement  of 
words  in  prose  or  verse,  the  translation  of  modern  and  dead  lan- 
guages into  the  language  of  the  translator,  constituted  the  chief 
work  of  the  educated  classes,  or  men  of  letters.  Agriculture, 
commerce  and  manufactures  were  but  crude  methods  of  produc- 
tion and  distribution,  and  any  attempt  to  introduce  wiser  or  better 
methods  was  looked  upon  with  jealousy  and  distrust,  and  was 
met  with  legal  and  social  opposition,  on  the  plea  of  protection  to 
home  industry.  Practically,  every  nation  was  surrounded  by  a 
Chinese  wall  to  keep  out  the  foreign  and  keep  in  the  native  prod- 
ucts. Nevertheless,  the  inevitable  law  of  distribution  overcame 
all  barriers,  until  commerce  and  manufactures,  extending  their 
sway  over  larger  fields,  made  trade  respectable,  and  created  the 
demand  for  a  business  education,  and  for  the  first  time  practical 
mathematics  competed  with  the  classics.  To-day  the  school  and 
the  college,  though  not  yet  emancipated  from  the  past,  are  slowly 
learning  the  importance  of  a  knowledge  of  things,  as  well  as  of 
words. 

The  college  graduate  enters  upon  the  work  of  life  ignorant  of 
industrial  operations.     He  is  prepared  for  the  library  and  study, 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  71 

but  not  for  the  manufactory  or  for  the  duties  of  citizenship.  The 
subject  of  his  study  and  thought  has  rendered  him  less  capable  of 
competing  with  the  young  man  whose  school  was  the  counting 
room,  and  whose  teacher  was  the  practical  man  of  business.  Let 
it  not  be  understood  that  a  neglect  of  the  knowledge  of  words  is 
advocated.  It  is  the  accompanying  knowledge  of  their  practical 
application  that  is  needed.  However  excellent  the  grammar,  how- 
ever clear  the  expression  of  thought,  words  and  thoughts  are  nar- 
rowed by  the  exclusive  system  that  connects  their  use  with  com- 
position alone.  The  importance  of  a  knowledge  of  things  cannot 
be  over-estimated.  All  hail  to  Walt  Whitman,  whose  verses  keep 
pace  with  the  whirr  of  machinery,  the  thud  of  the  ship  carpenter's 
hammer  and  the  clicking  of  type  into  the  printer's  stick. 

But  it  is  not  the  colleges  alone  that  are  pouring  into  active  life 
their  half -completed  products.  The  common  school  sends  forth 
yearly  its  thousands  of  youth,  who,  shortly  brought  face  to  face 
with  the  occupations,  social  duties  and  responsibilities  of  life, 
stand  back  amazed  before  the  terrible  reality  of  their  utter  igno- 
rance. How  to  apply  the  hard-gained  knowledge  of  the  school- 
room confuses  them.  What  wonder  at  the  demoralized  condition 
of  so  many  of  the  young.  As  well  drill  and  discipline  an  army 
with  the  use  of  the  bow  and  arrow,  and  marshal  them  forth  to  face 
the  shot  and  shell  of  the  cannon  and  Gatling  gun,  as  to  hope  for 
success  from  the  masses,  armed  as  they  are  with  the  tools  of  study 
only,  and  not  educated  in  the  use  or  the  application  of  their 
knowledge  to  self-help  and  mutual  helpfulness.  The  implements 
of  industry,  their  use  and  application  toward  these  ends,  are  as  an 
unknown  language  to  them. 

Is  it  a  matter  of  wonder  that  distaste  for  the  trades  is  every- 
where manifest  —  that  to  be  clerks,  and  not  carpenters,  is  the 
ambition  of  those  whose  knowledge  of  the  jack-plane  and  saw  is 
derived  only  from  the  shaving-trimmed  clothes  of  the  father  or  the 
mutilated  hand  of  a  neighbor,  while  the  clerk  and  the  salesman, 
well-dressed  and  whole-handed,  earn  a  living  with  the  familiar 
pen  of  the  school-room  or  the  easy  motion  of  a  voluble  tongue, 
aided  by  the  graceful  manners  of  youth?  Will  his  sweetheart 
smile  as  graciously  upon  the  blacksmith's   apprentice  as  upon  the 


72  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

merchant's  clerk  ?  This  is  the  important  question  he  asks  himself. 
All  that  he  knows  of  the  dignity  of  labor  is  from  an  occasional 
sermon  of  a  high-salaried  clergyman,  or  the  smooth  speech  of  a 
well-dressed  merchant  or  spouting  demagogue.  The  dignity  of 
blacksmithing,  brick-laying  and  painting  disappear  before  the 
swarthy  face  of  a  son  of  Vulcan,  or  the  mortar  or  paint  besmeared 
overalls  of  mason  and  painter. 

Bold  as  the  assertion  may  be  considered,  it  is  true  that  the 
child  is  taught  to  despise  manual  labor,  and  that  by  the  most 
subtle  and  convincing  method,  viz.,  by  implication.  His  reading 
lessons  are  not  of  trade  and  commerce,  of  the  processes  of  manu- 
factures, of  the  wonderful  manipulation  of  wood,  iron,  cotton 
and  wool,  of  the  grand  achievements  of  the  masses,  but  of  the 
achievements  of  wealth  or  of  glory.  His  arithmetic,  nearer  to 
common  life  than  aught  else,  is  of  the  counting  room,  not  of  the 
measure  of  lumber,  or  the  application  of  algebra  and  geometry  to 
wood-turning,  jig-sawing,  machine  or  house  building.  History 
contains  little  account  of  the  success  of  the  wage-laborers,  as 
such,  but  rather  of  the  achievements  of  warrior,  orator  and  cap- 
italist. Geography  turns  to  plague  him  with  his  ignorance  of  his 
own  State  and  nation.  He  knows  how  they  are  bounded,  but  not 
how  they  are  peopled,  what  the  people  do  to  get  a  living,  or  of 
their  relations  one  to  the  other. 

What  we  want,  then,  is  to  commence  at  the  beginning,  among  the 
masses,  —  the  ignorant,  degraded,  because  neglected,  masses, — 
and  provide  an  educational  system  that  shall  be,  in  the  words  of 
Dr.  Harris,  "the  preparation  of  the  individual  for  the  reciprocal 
union  with  society, — the  preparation  of  the  individual  so  that  he 
can  help  his  fellow  men,  and  in  turn  receive  and  appropriate  their 
help." 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  Commonwealth  to  commence  the  experi- 
ment of  teaching  the  true  dignity  of  labor  and  the  dignity  of 
citizenship.  Let  somewhat  of  the  taxes  go  toward  this  desired 
purpose.  Better  lead  in  the  van  of  this  progressive  age  than  to 
be  overcome  and  trampled  under  the  feet  of  the  people,  educated 
above  honest  toil  but  not  above  dishonest  accumulation.  For  the 
danger  is  not  wholly  in  the  direction  of  the  illiterate  mechanic. 


IN^DUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  73 

but  in  the  unemployed  classes,  who  look  upon  labor  as  disgrace- 
ful, and  any  method  of  procuring  a  subsistence  without  work  as 
honorable.  Does  not  the  success  of  the  adventurous  speculator, 
stock  and  merchandise  gambler,  official  speculator  and  irregular 
financier  invite  the  thousands  to  new  and  untried  fields  of 
robbery  ? 

The  poverty  of  the  parents  and  the  greed  of  capitalists  force 
the  children  to  labor  for  the  common  sustenance  ;  and,  once  at 
work  under  factory  discipline,  they  are  compelled,  from  the 
nature  of  the  work,  to  follow  the  monotonous  labor  from  morning 
till  night,  midst  jar  of  machinery  that  tries  the  less  tender  nerves 
of  older  people,  breathing  air  full  of  the  scent  of  oil  and  wood, 
and,  like  delicate  plants,  fading  away  for  want  of  sunlight. 

The  manual  training  system  advocated  by  this  Commission  does 
not  contemplate  a  course  of  training  based  upon  the  theory  that 
children  should  be  trained  in  such  occupations  or  trades  as  the 
financial  or  social  position  of  their  parents  would  warrant.  We 
agree  "  that  the  serious  occupation  of  life  cannot  be  imposed  upon 
children  without  dwarfing  their  human  nature,  physically,  intel- 
lectually and  morally,  and  producing  arrested  development.  Not 
only  the  games  of  youth,  but  the  youth's  freedom  from  the  cares 
of  mature  life,  should  be  insured  to  him,  if  the  best  preparation  is 
to  be  made  for  manhood.  It  is  sad  to  know  that  very  many 
children  are  dwarfed  by  family  necessity,  which  compels  them  to 
bear  the  weights  and  cares  of  mature  years.  The  street  gamin  in 
the  city  is  preternaturally  acute,  but  is  not  in  process  of  growth 
toward  ideal  manhood.  Later  on  he  will  be  found  suffering  from 
premature  old  age,  in  every  respect  a  wasted  human  life,  burnt 
out  before  it  could  develop  its  moral  and  intellectual  ideals.  He 
will  have  a  'Punch  and  Judy'  face,  such  as  Dickens  ascribes  to 
the  stunted  products  of  London  street  education.  Students  of 
anthropology  tell  us  that  man  surpasses  the  animals  so  much  in 
his  mature  life  because  he  has  a  so  much  longer  period  of  helpless 
infancy.  He  passes  through  a  hundred  grades  of  ascent  above 
the  brute,  using  all  his  forces  in  learning  to  walk  on  his  hind  legs, 
to  use  articulate  speech  for  intercommunication,  to  dress  himself 
in  clothes,  and  to  put  on  that  far  subtler  clothing  of  customs  and 


74  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

usages  whicti  hold  back  and  conceal  his  animal  propensities,  and 
substitute  courtesy  toward  others  for  selfish,  natural  impulse. 
Were  it  not  for  this  diversion  of  the  forces  of  childhood,  man 
might  develop  like  the  animals  the  ability  to  walk  immediately 
after  birth,  and  use  his  bundle  of  intellectual  instincts  at  once, 
without  the  necessity  of  a  long  process  of  education." 

A  knowledge  of  things  is  a  great  aid  in  awakening  not  only 
consciousness  of  his  higher  self,  but  a  stimulant  to  his  dormant 
powers. 

Proud  as  we  are  of  the  advance  made  from  past  conditions,  we 
are  yet  neglectful  of  our  duty  to  the  children  and  the  youth  in  the 
school  and  out  of  the  school.  But  a  small  percentage  of  our 
youth  enter  the  high  school,  and  not  more  than  half  of  those  who 
enter  complete  the  course.  Not  more  than  twenty  per  cent,  of 
those  who  enter  the  grammar  school  remain  long  enough  to 
graduate,  and  of  all  who  enter  the  grammar  school  at  least  one- 
half  will  be  found  in  the  two  lower  classes. 

The  expansion  of  governmental  functions  that  are  certain  to 
follow  the  present  order  of  the  industrial  and  financial  system  will 
find  a  constituency  not  qualified  for  the  duties  of  self-government. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  century,  before  the  great  subdivisions 
of  labor,  consequent  upon  machine  methods  and  machine  oper- 
ations, a  graduate  of  the  district  school  was  better  qualified  for 
his  life  duties  than  is  the  graduate  of  the  school  of  to-day  quali- 
fied for  the  enlarged  duties  upon  which  he  is  called  to  act,  save 
where  something  of  the  new  method  has  been  adopted. 

Some  of  the  evils  of  continuous,  monotonous  labor  have  been 
lessened  by  increasing  the  age  limit  at  which  children  can  be 
employed,  and  reductions  in  the  hours  of  labor ;  but  this  work 
must  be  supplemented  by  the  filling  of  the  time  gained  with  oppor- 
tunities of  training  the  mind  and  body  so  that  our  youth  shall 
know  something  of  the  why  as  well  as  of  the  how. 

The  Commonwealth  should  teach  that  labor  is  more  than  a  mere 
commodity.  Labor  is  the  material  life  of  the  world,  "Man's 
creative  attribute." 

"  Work  is  the  law  of  life,  and  its  binding  force  upon  the  indi- 
vidual increases  the  progress  of    civilization.     The  savage  must 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  75 

work  or  perish,  and  the  civilized  man  must  work  or  compel  another 
to  work  for  him ;  and  it  is  this  alternative  proposition  that 
moulded,  and  still  controls,  with  an  iron  hand,  existing  educa- 
tional systems.  We  do  not  train  men  to  be  useful,  but  train  them 
to  make  others  useful.  "We  assume  the  existence  of  class  distinc- 
tions, and  take  measures  to  perpetuate  them,  by  training  men,  not 
to  work  themselves,  but  to  make  others  work  for  them.  And  this 
solecism  in  education  is  the  more  glaring  in  a  country  like  ours, 
whose  organic  law  asserts  the  equal  rights  of  man.  But  every 
great  abuse  or  ignorance,  or  superstition,  has  behind  it  a  great 
cause,  and  the  cause  of  this  fundamental  defect  in  our  education 
dates  back  to  Greece.  The  revival  of  learning  was  a  revival  of 
Greek  methods,  which  grew  out  of  a  social  system  whose  every 
attribute  was  the  opposite  of  ours,  —  a  social  system  whose  corner- 
stone was  slavery,  as  the  corner-stone  of  ours  is  liberty." 

"  The  philosopher  may  cease  to  speculate,  the  poet  to  sing,  the 
lawyer  to  plead,  the  priest  to  warn,  the  doctor  to  heal,  and  the 
world,  with  all  its  multiform  concerns,  goes  on.  But  let  the  hand 
of  labor  be  unlifted,  and  there  ensues  an  unfruitful  pause.  Silence 
in  the  field,  the  factory  and  the  shop  means  want  equally  in  the 
palace  and  the  hut.  And  shall  not  the  hand,  whose  cunning  feeds, 
clothes,  houses  and  warms  the  whole  human  race,  —  shall  it  not  be 
trained?" 

"  A  studied  effort  is  now  being  made  by  the  would-be  taskmas- 
ters of  mankind  to  re-enslave  the  laborer  by  treating  his  labor  as 
if  it  were  a  mere  commodity.  But,  while  labor  may  be  contracted 
for,  it  is  not  a  commodity,  because  its  delivery  cannot  be 
enforced.  It  is  not  a  commodity,  because  no  power  can  reduce  it 
to  possession  in  the  hands  of  the  alleged  purchaser.  It  is  not  a 
commodity,  because,  notwithstanding  the  debtor  may  possess  fifty 
years'  store  of  it,  not  the  smallest  part  can  be  extorted  by  legal 
process.  It  is  not  a  commodity,  because  it  is  a  spark  of  divinity, 
—  man's  sole  creative  attribute.  As  Carlyle  well  says,  '  It  is  the 
truest  emblem  of  God,  and  the  predestined  rule  of  the  earth.' " 

"  Numbers  of  '  brainy'  persons  have  been  graciously  willing  to 
do  the  thinking  for  the  rest  of  mankind,  provided  the  rest  of  man- 
kind would  house  them,  clothe  them,  feed  them  and  otherwise 


76  MANUAL    TEAINING   AND 

provide  for  all  their  physical  wants.  And  it  is  worthy  of  note 
with  what  unanimity  it  has  been  agreed  among  the  '  thinkers '  that 
they  ought  to  occupy  all  the  fine  houses,  wear  all  the  good  clothes 
and  eat  all  the  delicate  food  ;  and  they  are  equally  agreed  that 
huts,  rags  and  corn-bread  are  good  enough  for  the  hand- worker. 
But  it  is  none  the  less  true,  as  Ruskin  so  pertinently  says,  that 
'  Your  wealth,  your  amusement,  your  pride,  would  all  be  alike 
impossible  but  for  those  whom  you  scorn  or  forget.  .  .  .  The 
sailor,  wrestling  with  the  sea's  rage  ;  the  quiet  student,  poring 
over  his  work  or  his  vial ;  the  common  worker,  without  praise  and 
nearly  without  bread,  fulfilling  his  task  as  your  horses  drag  your 
carts,  hopeless  and  spurned  of  all,  —  these  are  the  men  by  whom 
England  lives.'  Nevertheless,  it  is  for  the  'thinker'  almost  ex- 
clusively, and  for  the  hand-worker  not  at  all,  that  the  schools  have 
hitherto  existed." 

"Five  hundred  years  ago  famines  came  through  failure  of  har- 
vests and  lack  of  transportation  ;  but  now  they  occur  because  a 
few,  with  avaricious  hand,  seize  all  the  garnered  fruits  of  labor. 
That  this  indifference  to  suffering  among  large  masses  of  fellow- 
creatures  is  not  natural,  however,  but  the  result  of  vicious  educa- 
tion, is  clear,  since  the  humane  impulse  to  deliver  suddenly  im- 
perilled life  is  instantaneous,  universal  and  overwhelming.  When 
the  spectacle  of  poverty  or  misery  in  any  form  shall  prompt  to 
saving  action,  as  definite  and  vigorous  as  the  voluntary  impulse  to 
rescue  the  drowning  man  is  natural  and  irresistible,  then  and  not 
till  then  will  the  race  have  attained  a  high  moral  plane." 

Horace  Mann  in  his  last  report  says  :  "  It  is  the  blindest  folly 
to  contemplate  men  only  as  producers,  to  estimate  only  their  pro- 
ductive capacity  with  that  of  perfected  machinery  ;  but,  even  if 
we  were  to  narrow  our  vision  to  this  microscopic  view  of  the  real 
issue,  we  should  see,  upon  scientific  investigation,  that  education 
is  the  essential  element  of  success  in  the  accumulation  of  material 
prosperity.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  human  progress,  even  in 
regard  to  the  worldly  interests  of  the  race,  did  not  begin  with  those 
improvements  which  are  most  closely  allied  to  material  prosperity. 
One  would  have  supposed,  beforehand,  improvements  would  com- 
mence with  the  near  rather  than  with  the  remote.     Yet  mankind 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  77 

had  made  great  advances  in  astronomy  and  in  geometry,  and  other 
mathematical  sciences ;  in  the  writing  of  history,  in  oratory  and 
in  poetry  ;  it  is  supposed  by  many  to  have  reached  the  highest 
point  of  yet  attained  perfection  in  painting  and  in  sculpture,  and 
in  those  kinds  of  architecture  which  may  be  called  regal  or  relig- 
ious, centuries  before  the  great  mechanical  discoveries  and  inven- 
tions which  now  bless  the  world  were  brought  to  light.  And  the 
question  has  often  forced  itself  upon  reflecting  minds,  why  was 
this  preposterousness,  this  inversion  of  what  would  appear  to  be 
the  natural  order  of  progress?  Why  was  it,  for  instance,  that 
men  should  have  learned  the  course  of  the  stars  and  the  revolu- 
tions of  the  planets  before  they  found  out  how  to  make  a  good 
wagon  wheel  ?  Why  was  it  that  they  built  the  Parthenon  and  the 
Coliseum  before  they  knew  how  to  construct  a  comfortable,  healthy 
dwelling-house?  Why  did  they  construct  the  Roman  Aqueduct 
before  they  constructed  a  saw-mill  ?  Or  why  did  they  achieve  the 
noblest  models  in  eloquence,  in  poetry  and  in  tlie  drama,  before 
they  invented  movable  types?  I  think  we  have  now  arrived  at  a 
point  where  we  can  unriddle  this  enigma.  The  labor  of  the  world 
has  been  performed  by  ignorant  men, 

"  As  soon  as  some  degree  of  intelligence  dawned  upon  the 
workman,  then  a  corresponding  degree  of  improvement  in  his 
work  followed.  At  first  this  intelligence  was  confined  to  a  very 
small  number,  and  therefore  improvements  were  few,  and  they 
followed  each  other  only  after  long  intervals.  They  uniformly 
began  in  the  nations  and  among  the  classes  where  there  was  most 
intelligence.  The  middle  classes  of  England  and  the  people  of 
Holland  and  Scotland  have  done  a  hundred  times  more  than  all 
the  eastern  hemisphere  beside.  What  single  improvement  in  art 
or  discovery  in  science  has  ever  originated  in  Spain,  or  through- 
out the  vast  empire  of  the  Russias?  But  just  in  proportion  as 
intelligence  —  that  is,  education  —  has  quickened  and  stimulated 
a  greater  and  a  greater  number  of  minds,  just  in  the  same  propor- 
tion have  inventions  and  discoveries  increased  in  their  wonderful- 
ness,  and  in  the  rapidity  of  their  succession. 

"For  the  creation  of  wealth,  then,  —  for  the  existence  of  a 
wealthy  people  and  a  wealthy  nation,  —  intelligence  is  the  grand 


78  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

condition.  The  number  of  improvers  will  increase  as  tlie  intel- 
lectual constituency,  if  I  may  so  call  it,  increases.  In  former 
times,  and  in  most  parts  of  the  world,  even  at  the  present  day, 
not  one  man  in  a  million  has  ever  had  such  a  development  of 
mind  as  made  it  possible  for  him  to  become  a  contributor  to  art 
or  science.  Let  this  development  proceed,  and  contributions 
numberless  and  of  inestimable  value  will  be  sure  to  follow.  That 
political  economy,  therefore,  which  busies  itself  about  capital  and 
labor,  supply  and  demand,  interest  and  rents,  favorable  and 
unfavorable  balances  of  trade,  but  leaves  out  of  account  the 
element  of  a  wide-spread  mental  development,  is  naught  but  a 
stupendous  folly." 

The  education  of  children,  then,  is  the  wisest  means  to  secure 
material  prosperity.  Here  in  Massachusetts  the  danger  is  immi- 
nent, for  here  the  population  is  more  dense  than  the  average  of  all 
other  States  taken  together,  and  density  of  population  has  always 
been  the  proximate  cause  of  social  inequality. 

"  If  this  be  so,  are  we  not  in  danger  of  naturalizing  and  domes- 
ticating among  ourselves  those  hideous  evils  which  are  always 
engendered  between  capital  and  labor,  when  all  the  capital  is  in 
the  hands  of  one  class  and  all  the  labor  is  thrown  upon  another? 

"  Now,  surely,  nothing  but  universal  education  can  counter- 
work this  tendency  to  the  domination  of  capital  and  the  servility 
of  labor.  If  one  class  possesses  all  the  wealth  and  the  education, 
while  the  residue  of  society  is  ignorant  and  poor,  it  matters  not 
by  what  name  the  relation  between  them  may  be  called ;  the 
latter,  in  fact  and  in  truth,  will  be  the  servile  dependents  and 
subjects  of  the  former.  But  if  education  be  equally  diffused,  it 
will  draw  property  after  it  by  the  strongest  of  all  attractions  ; 
for  such  a  thing  never  did  happen,  and  never  can  happen,  as  that 
an  intelligent  and  practical  body  of  men  should  be  permanently 
poor.  Property  and  labor  in  different  classes  are  essentially 
antagonistic  ;  but  property  and  labor  in  the  same  class  are  essen- 
tially fraternal." 

The  hunger  and  thirst  of  the  people  for  more  knowledge,  more 
wealth,  more  political  and  religious  health,  cannot  be  satisfied 
with  learned  dissertations  upon  obsolete  educational,  social  and 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION".  79 

economic  dogmas,  neither  will  the  cry  of  economy  drown  the 
pleading  voice  of  the  child. 

The  little  red  school-house  did  its  work  well,  because  the 
cottage  home,  the  little  white  church,  the  little  shop  and  the  town 
meeting  were  neighbors  co-operating  in  the  training  of  youth  for 
the  duties  of  life. 

School-houses  must  keep  pace  with  the  large  manufactories  in 
equipment,  and  with  the  higher  arts  in  beauty,  and  the  school 
yards  should  increase  in  fiimensions  as  the  population  becomes 
more  dense.  The  play-ground  should  be  a  part  of  the  educational 
opportunity  for  the  children,  as  the  Holmes  Field  of  Harvard  Col- 
lege furnishes  opportunity  for  the  physical  culture  of  its  students. 

Church  and  State  cannot  and  ought  not  to  be  united  until,  as  in 
the  days  of  the  Pilgrims,  all  are  of  one  faith ;  but  the  true  religion 
of  a  common  fatherhood  and  brotherhood  can  be  revealed  without 
dogma. 

Homes  will  multiply  as  self-respect  and  self-dependence,  through 
mutual  respect  and  mutual  dependence,  increase. 

The  little  shop  has  gone,  but  its  beneficent  educational  influences 
can  remain. 

The  school-house  is  a  workshop,  and  the  hand  which  learns  how 
to  use  a  pencil  can  be  taught  to  draw  pictures  of  use  and  beauty. 
From  the  mud  pies  to  the  clay  maps  is  an  easy  gradation.  The 
jack-knife,  the  plane  and  saw  can  be  used  with  greater  safety  and 
to  a  wiser  purpose  under  a  system  and  an  instructor  than  out  of 
the  school-house  without  an  instructor,  and  this  training  will  in- 
crease the  interest  of  the  pupil,  not  only  in  this  work,  but  in  the 
usual  studies  of  the  school. 

The  civilization  of  these  closing  years  of  the  nineteenth  century 
is  materialistic.  The  order  of  so-called  progress  is  toward  aggre- 
gation rather  than  diffusion  or  distribution.  Population  flows 
toward  the  cities,  wealth  flows  toward  the  few.  Competition  has 
become  so  fierce  that  combinations  of  the  wealthy  seek  to  drive 
out  their  weaker  competitors.  Factory  is  joined  to  factory,  mine 
to  mine  and  railroad  to  railroad,  to  destroy  the  competition  which 
was  their  former  boast.  Other  men  combine  to  resist  the  down- 
ward tendency  of  the  standard  of  their  living,  consequent  upon  the 


80  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

coiDpetition  of  cheaper  and  more  ignorant  men.  Contests  between 
competitors  have  become  frequent.  Class  is  arrayed  against  class, 
and  in  this  mad  rush  for  wealth  and  mastery  free  institutions  are 
endangered. 

The  machinery  of  to-day  destroys  the  utility  of  the  skill  of 
yesterday,  and  the  morrow  brings  no  hope.  The  revolution  now 
in  progress  will  continue.  Shall  it  come  as  a  cloud,  through  the 
ignorance  and  despair  of  poverty,  or  shall  it  come  through  the 
peaceful  processes  and  enlarged  opportunities  of  education,  freely 
furnished  ? 


Recommendations  . 
We  respectfully  submit  the  following  recommendations  :  — 

1.  That  the  principles  and  practice  of  the  kindergarten  be 
taught  in  the  normal  schools. 

2.  That  the  principles  and  practice  of  manual  training,  so  far 
as  applicable  in  the  primary  and  grammar  schools,  be  taught  in 
the  normal  schools. 

3.  That  the  principles  and  practice  of  domestic  science  be 
taught  in  the  normal  schools. 

4.  That  high  schools,  in  which  a  course  in  the  mechanic  arts, 
approved  by  the  Board  of  Education,  shall  be  taught  to  boys,  be 
established  and  maintained  in  all  cities  having  a  population  of 
twenty  thousand  or  more. 

5.  That  high  schools,  in  which  a  course  in  domestic  science, 
including  sewing  and  cooking,  approved  by  the  Board  of  Edu- 
cation, shall  be  taught  to  girls,  be  established  and  maintained  in 
all  cities  having  a  population  of  twenty  thousand  or  more. 

6.  Any  city  or  town  which,  though  not  required  so  to  do  by 
law,  shall  nevertheless  establish  one  or  more  schools  for  manual 
training  or  industrial  education,  open  to  boys  or  girls  of  fourteen 
or  more  years  of  age,  and  with  courses  of  study  and  exercises 
approved  by  the  Board  of  Education,  shall  receive  from  the  State 
treasury  an  amount  of  money  equal  to  the  amount  specifically 
appropriated  by  such  city  or  town  for  the  support  of  such  school 
or  schools  in  each  and  every  year,  provided  the  amount  paid  out 


ESTDUSTKIAL    EDUOATIOK^.  81 

from  the  State  treasury  to  any  one  city  or  town  in  any  one  year 
shall  not  exceed  five  thousand  dollars. 

7.  That  the  State  make  provision  for  the  training  of  teachers 
of  the  mechanic  arts,  by  establishing  at  the  Massachusetts  Insti- 
tute of  Technology  or  at  the  Worcester  Polytechnic  Institute,  or 
at  both  these  institutions.  State  scholarships  open  to  such  young 
men  as,  being  otherwise  well  qualified,  shall  promise  to  become, 
after  their  course  of  training,  teachers  in  the  public  schools  of 
this  State. 

8.  That  the  duty  of  advising  with  and  aiding  school  committees 
of  towns  and  cities  in  relation  to  the  introduction  of  kindergarten 
instruction  into  the  public  schools  be  made  the  special  duty  of  an 
agent  of  the  Board  of  Education. 

9.  That  the  Board  of  Education  be  by  law  required  to  appoint 
an  agent  whose  special  duty  shall  be  to  advise  and  aid  in  the 
introduction  of  manual  training  and  industrial  education  into  the 
public  schools,  and  to  visit  and  report  upon  all  schools  in  which 
such  training  and  education  are  carried  on. 

LOUISA  PARSONS   HOPKINS. 
EDWIN   P.    SEAVER. 

.    GEO.  E.  McNeill. 


APPEI^DIX. 


[83] 


Appendix    A, 


A   PLAN   FOR   A   MECHANIC    ARTS    HIGH    SCHOOL   IN   THE 
CITY  OF  BOSTON.* 

By  EDWIN  P.  SEAVER,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools. 


The  grade  of  the  proposed  school  and  its  relations  to  existing 
public  schools  are  best  marked  by  naming  it  a  high  school,  while 
the  words  mechanic  arts  indicate  the  characteristic  feature  of  its 
course  of  study.  The  curriculum  of  this  school,  like  that  of  the 
other  high  schools,  should  begin  when  that  of  the  grammar  school 
ends.  It  should  be  three  years  long.  The  requirements  for  ad- 
mission should  be  a  grammar-school  diploma  or  the  equivalent 
examination,  age  not  less  than  thirteen,  and  a  good  character. 

The  school  time,  twenty-five  hours  a  week,  should  be  shared  by 
shop  work,  book  work  and  drawing,  in  about  the  proportion  of  ten 
hours  to  each  of  the  two  former  and  five  hours  to  the  last.  But  if 
it  should  be  thought  best  to  introduce  military  drill  into  the  curric- 
ulum of  this  school,  —  and  there  are  good  reasons  to  be  urged  for 
doing  so, — the  needed  time  could  be  taken  from  the  book  work 
and  the  drawing  equally.  Then  the  distribution  of  time  would  be 
as  follows  :  — 

Hours  per  Week. 

Shop  work, 10 

Book  work, 9 

Drawing, 4 

Military  drill,t 2 

Total, 25 

Before  speaking  of  the  shop  work  in  detail,  it  may  be  well  to 
dispose  of  the  other  branches  of  the  school  work  in  a  few  words. 


*  Reprinted  from  Boston  School  Document  No.  15  of  the  year  1889. 
t  If  military  drill  formed  no  part  of  the  instruction,  the  book  work  and  the  draw- 
ing would  each  be  increased  one  hour  a  week. 

[85] 


86  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

The  book  work  should  be  in  English  language,  in  mathematics, 
and  in  science  ;  but  a  part  or  the  whole  of  the  science  could  be 
replaced  by  a  foreign  language,  if  circumstances  made  it  desirable 
for  any  considerable  number  of  boys  to  make  such  a  substitution. 
This  might  well  be  the  case  with  boys  preparing  to  enter  some 
higher  institution  of  learning,  as,  for  example,  the  Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Technology. 

In  English  language,  the  chief  effort  should  be  in  the  direction 
of  training  to  clear  and  correct  use  of  language  in  both  oral  and 
written  expression.  Literature  and  history  would  not  be  directly 
the  subjects  of  study  in  this  department,  but  they  would  supply 
the  material  to  be  worked  upon  ;  and  thus  incidentally  the  pupils 
would  become  acquainted  with  a  few  works  of  the  great  writers. 

The  mathematics  should  include  elementary  algebra,  plane  and 
solid  geometry,  descriptive  geometry  and  plane  trigonometry.  A 
thorough  acquaintance  with  these  branches  has  been  found  essen- 
tial to  the  best  success,  both  in  drawing  and  in  mechanical  con- 
struction. 

The  science  should  be  physics  and  chemistry.  The  method  of 
teaching  both  these  branches  should  be  that  known  as  the  labora- 
tory method.  If  circumstances  make  this  method  impracticable, 
—  as  is  the  case  now  in  some  high  schools,  —  the  time  would 
be  better  spent  in  the  study  of  a  foreign  language.  The  day 
for  mere  book  work  and  lecture  notes  in  science  has  gone  by. 
Some  of  the  apparatus  used  in  the  laboratories  may  be  made  in 
the  shops  by  the  boys,  but  not  all.  There  is  an  important  limit 
to  be  observed  in  this  matter.  Boys  should  not  be  set  to  making 
their  own  chemical  or  physical  apparatus,  unless  the  knowledge  to 
be  gained  from  such  making  be  at  least  as  valuable  as  the  knowl- 
edge to  be  gained  from  any  other  kind  of  shop  work  that  could 
fill  the  same  time.  To  set  boys  to  making  things  for  no  other 
reason  than  to  save  money  in  the  running  expenses  of  the  school 
is  wrong  ;  for  it  is  to  sacrifice  the  boys  to  the  school,  whereas  the 
school  exists  only  for  the  benefit  of  the  boj^s. 

The  drawing  should  be  carried  on  with  constant  reference  to 
the  shop  work,  which  it  is  designed  to  assist,  and  from  which  in 
turn  it  will  receive  assistance.  As  educational  agencies,  drawing 
and  construction  belong  together  as  two  parts  of  one  whole. 
Neither  is  fully  efficacious  without  the  other.  Like  the  two  blades 
of  a  pair  of  scissors,  each  requires  the  aid  of  the  other  to  do  its 
own  work.  The  drawing  teacher  will,  therefore,  keep  the  shop 
work  constantly  in  view,  co-operating  with  it,  and  using  it  as  the 
chief  source  from  which  to  take  illustrations.  The  shop  teacher, 
on  his  side,  will  see  that  every  piece  of  work,  however  simple,  be 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  87 

executed  from  drawings  made  by  the  pupil.  Thus  the  whole  work 
of  the  drawing  rooms  and  shops  becomes  one  course  of  practice 
in  the  expression  of  ideas,  through  drawing  and  construction. 
The  drawing  will  be  chiefly  of  the  kind  known  as  mechanical 
drawing ;  but  the  aesthetic  side  of  the  work  should  be  provided  for 
by  adding  a  reasonable  amount  of  free-hand  drawing. 

The  shop  work  will  be  described  first  in  outline  and  then  in 
more  detail. 

The  first  year's  shop  work  should  consist  of  carpentry  and 
wood  turning  chiefly ;  but,  for  the  aesthetic  side  of  the  work, 
there  should  also  be  a  considerable  number  of  lessons  in  wood 
carving.  The  year's  work  should  be  drawn  up  in  a  fully  de- 
tailed series  of  lessons  or  exercises,  which  should  be  required  of 
all-  pupils  alike,  the  whole  class  beginning  each  new  exercise  in  the 
series  simultaneously.  Then  there  should  be  drawn  up  a  parallel 
series  of  supplementary  exercises,  to  be  given,  as  occasion  may 
require,  to  those  quicker  pupils  who  complete  the  regular  exercises 
in  less  than  the  allowed  time. 

In  the  shop  work  of  the  second  year  the  wood-work  is  continued 
and  becomes  pattern  making.  This  is  accompanied  and  followed 
by  a  brief  course  in  moulding  and  casting.  The  material  used 
for  casting  may  be  either  plaster  or  soft  metal.  The  latter  is 
easily  managed,  and  may  be  melted  over  and  over  again,  thus 
avoiding  waste.  The  same  may  be  said  of  brass.  Although 
there  appears  to  have  been  little  experience  with  the  casting  and 
finishing  of  brass  thus  far  in  the  schools,  there  is  good  reason  for 
believing  that  experiments  in  this  direction  would  prove  very  sat- 
isfactory. Iron  cannot  advantageously  be  used,  for  it  would 
necessitate  the  expense  and  the  trouble  of  a  cupola.  Besides,  the 
process  of  iron  casting,  to  be  of  much  educational  value,  would 
involve  more  knowledge  of  metallurgy  than  could  well  be  contem- 
plated in  a  school  of  the  character  now  proposed. 

"Whatever  iron  castings  might  be  needed  for  the  third  year's 
work  could  best  be  procured  at  a  commercial  foundry  in  the  usual 
way ;  that  is  to  say,  the  boys  would  make  the  patterns  of  the  cast- 
ings they  needed,  send  them  to  the  foundry,  and  receive  the  castings 
in  due  time.  It  would,  doubtless,  be  found  practicable  occasionally 
to  arrange  a  visit  to  the  foundry  by  a  class  when  castings  were  to 
be  made  from  their  patterns,  or  at  other  times. 

After  the  pattern  making,  moulding  and  casting,  which  alto- 
gether should  occupy  twelve  or  thirteen  weeks  in  the  early  part  of 
the  second  year,  should  come  the  forging,  which  will  occupy  the 
remaining  two-thirds  of  the  year.  The  forging  begins  with  sim- 
ple exercises  in  bending,  drawing  out  and  upsetting ;  then  follows 


88  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

welding,  with  exercises  of  increasing  difficulty,  requiring  more  and 
more  knowledge  and  skill ;  and  the  course  concludes  with  each 
boy's  forging  and  tempering  a  set  of  tools  which  he  will  use  next 
year  in  the  machine  shop. 

Supplementary  exercises  in  forging  should  be  provided  for  the 
quicker  boys.  There  is  an  endless  variety  of  ornamental  wrought- 
iron  work  that  may  be  suggested  for  supplementary  exercises, 
although  some  ornamental  work  should  have  a  place  in  the 
required  exercises.  Thus  the  aesthetic  side  of  the  work  would 
receive  due  attention.  Ornamental  wrought-iron  work  is  now  so 
much  in  vogue  that  the  boys  would  find  it  very  interesting,  both 
in  designing  and  in  working  out  their  designs.  Their  designs 
should  first  be  made  on  paper,  and  submitted  to  the  teacher  for 
criticism. 

Not  until  the  designs  have  been  approved  does  work  at  the 
forge  begin.  By  this  double  process  of  making  designs  and  work- 
ing them  out  in  material  is  the  great  lesson  learned  that  mere  pret- 
tiness,  or  beauty  even,  in  a  design  is  not  necessarily  an  element  of 
value.  If  a  design  be  unworkable  in  the  material  intended,  it  is 
worthless. 

The  shop  work  of  the  third  year  should  be  almost  wholly  in  the 
machine  shop,  consisting  of  exercises  in  chipping  and  filing  and  of 
exercises  at  the  machine. 

After  the  prescribed  exercises  of  the  year  have  been  done,  each 
pupil  should  be  ready  to  undertake,  either  alone  or  in  partnership 
with  one  or  more  other  pupils,  some  project,  or  complete  piece  of 
mechanical  work,  which  may  serve  as  the  crowning  exercise  of  the 
whole  instruction  in  mechanic  arts.  These  projects  correspond  to 
the  graduation  theses  of  academic  courses  of  study. 

A  project  is  begun  in  the  drawing  room,  where  the  plans  and 
shop  drawings  are  prepared  from  given  specifications.  Then  the 
patterns  are  made  in  the  wood- working  shops.  The  iron  castings 
are  best  obtained  at  a  commercial  foundry,  for  reasons  already 
explained.  The  pupils  take  the  castings  to  the  machine  shop, 
where  they  do  the  fitting  and  finishing,  and  where  the  whole  proj- 
ect is  put  together  and  tested.  In  this  way  the  boys,  in  their 
third  year,  are  taken  over  the  whole  ground  of  their  previous 
instruction  in  mechanic  arts,  and  their  knowledge  is  unified  and 
solidified.  The  projects  usually  undertaken  by  two  or  moi'e  boys 
in  partnership  are  steam  engines,  dynamos,  speed  lathes,  steam 
pumps,  and  other  such  machines.  Some  of  the  schools  now  pos- 
sess machines  thus  constructed  by  pupils  which  have  been  doing 
good  work  for  some  years.  At  Baltimore  is  a  steam  engine,  made 
by  the  pupils  of  the  school,  which  furnishes  all  the  power  used  in 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION".  89 

the  shops.  At  Chicago  is  a  smaller  engine,  made  in  the  school  by 
pupils,  which  is  used  for  driving  some  of  the  machinery  of  the 
shops.  In  the  Naval  School  at  Annapolis,  where  instruction  in 
the  mechanic  arts  is  given  to  the  cadets,  there  are  good  steam 
engines  of  various  patterns,  all  the  work  of  past  graduating 
classes.  At  Cleveland  is  a  forty-light  dynamo,  made  by  the  boys, 
which  will  be  used  to  light  the  machine  shop. 

Machines  like  these  are  undertaken  only  by  several  boys  work- 
ing together ;  for  single  boys  the  projects  must  be  simpler  and 
less  time-consuming.  As  has  been  stated  already,  the  boys'  work 
on  these  projects  begins  with  the  preparation  of  drawings  from 
given  specifications.  To  originate  designs  of  machinery,  or  to 
make  specifications  in  accordance  with  scientific  principles,  would 
be  too  high  a  task  for  the  boys  to  undertake  at  this  stage  of 
advancement.  They  must  therefore  take  the  designs  and  specifi- 
cations of  their  projects  from  their  teacher,  or  from  some  other 
competent  authority.  These  having  been  obtained,  all  the  rest  of 
the  work,  save  the  casting,  is  the  boys'  own  work,  done  under  the 
general  advice  and  guidance  of  the  teachers. 

Projects  are  not  necessarily  confined  to  the  third  year.  They 
may  be  advantageously  introduced  near  the  end  of  the  carpentry 
course  in  the  filrst  year,  or  near  the  end  of  the  whole  wood-work- 
ing course  in  the  second  year,  or  near  the  end  of  the  forging 
course  in  the  same  year.  These  would  be  especially  desirable  for 
those  \)oy?,  who  had  finished  the  prescribed  exercises  in  an  excel- 
lent manner,  and  in  less  than  the  allowed  time.  Boys  of  this  sort 
there  will  always  be  ;  and  the  highest  success  of  the  school  will 
depend  on  keeping  such  boys  interested  and  busy.  Pieces  in 
cabinet  making  ornamented  with  wood  carving,  and  pieces  in  orna- 
mental wrought-iron  work,  would  be  quite  within  the  boys'  power 
to  execute  satisfactorily  ;  and  such  pieces  would  serve  well,  not 
only  to  display  acquired  skill  in  workmanship,  but  also  to  bring 
into  play  the  artistic  feeling.  As  to  the  material  used  in  any  of 
the  projects,  if  its  cost  should  be  worth  considering,  the  boys 
should  be  expected  to  provide  it  or  pay  for  it,  in  case  they  desire 
to  possess  the  completed  article.  All  projects,  however,  should 
be  held  by  the  school  so  long  as  they  may  be  needed  for  exhibi- 
tion. 

Such  in  outline  is  the  shop  work  which  experience  has  shown  to 
be  practicable  and  useful,  resulting  in  a  good  degree  of  general 
mechanical  skill  and  a  high  degree  of  mechanical  intelligence. 
The  main  features  of  this  shop-work  course  may  be  regarded  as 
permanent,  although  the  details  may  be  expected  to  change  from 
year  to  year,  as  taste  or  convenience  may  suggest.     Neverthe- 


90  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

less,  at  the  outset  the  proposed  school  will  need  a  fully  detailed 
course  of  shop  work,  showing  all  the  particular  exercises,  both 
required  and  supplementary,  together  with  suggestions  of  suitable 
projects  for  the  end  of  the  whole  course  and  of  other  periods  ; 
and  such  a  detailed  course  would  be  presented  here  in  this  report, 
with  wood-cuts  to  illustrate  it,  were  it  not,  fortunately,  so  easy 
to  refer  to  a  recently  published  book,*  containing  all  the  needed 
descriptions  and  illustrations.  The  exercises  in  carpentry,  wood 
turning,  pattern  making,  wood  carving,  forging,  chipping,  filing, 
shaping  and  finishing,  fully  described  and  pictured  in  this  book, 
as  executed  in  the  St.  Louis  Manual  Training  School,  leave 
little  to  be  desired ;  and  these  may  be  adopted  with  all  the  more 
confidence,  since  the  other  schools  have  adopted  substantially  the 
same.  For  exercises  in  moulding  and  casting,  reference  may  be 
made  to  the  courses  of  some  other  schools,  especially  to  that  of 
the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology.  Also  there  are  good 
examples  of  ornamental  wrought-iron  work  to  be  taken  from  the 
schools  at  Chicago  and  Philadelphia.  From  these  sources  of  in- 
formation is  derived  the  following  brief  statement  of  the  contents 
of  the  various  courses  of  shop  work  that  should  have  place  in  the 
proposed  school :  — 

1.  Exercises  in  carpentry.  Rip  and  cross-cut  sawing.  Pieces 
of  rough  stock  sawed  out  to  given  dimensions.  Planing  pieces  of 
board  to  given  width  and  thickness, — true  faces,  sti'aight  and 
square  edges.  Squaring  the  ends  of  pieces.  Nailing  pieces  to- 
gether to  form  a  box.  Making  a  mitre  box.  Testing  the  mitre 
box  by  cutting  four  pieces  for  a  square  frame  with  mitre  joints. 
Making  a  picture  frame  from  a  piece  of  moulding,  —  mitre  joints. 
Pai'ing  with  a  chisel,  (a)  the  end  of  a  square  piece  in  the  form  of 
a  square  pyramid,  (&)  the  other  end  in  the  form  of  a  semi-cylinder, 
(c)  a  circular  disc  from  a  piece  of  board,  (d)  an  elliptical  disc 
from  a  piece  of  board. t  Joints  :  a  half-and-half  open  joint,  a 
half-and-half  closed  joint  with  pieces  at  right  angles,  the  same 
with  pieces  at  oblique  angles  (60°  and  120°),  a  frame  of  four 
pieces  joined  with  half-and-half  closed  joints  with  the  projecting 
ends  finished  in  semi-cyliudrical  form  and  the  edges  chamfered, 
an  open  mortise  and  tenon  joint,  a  double  open  mortise  and  tenon 
joint,  a  closed  mortise  and  tenon  joint  with  projecting  end  of  tenon 
rounded,  a  double  closed  mortise  and  tenon  joint  with  projecting 
ends  of  tenons  rounded,  an  oblique  (45°)  mortise  and  tenon  joint, 
a  half  dovetailed  joint  halved  together,  a  dovetailed  joint  with 

*  "  The  Manual  Training  School,"  by  C.  M.  Woodward.    Boston :  1887. 
t  If  wood-working  were  pursued  in  the  grammar  schools,  the  earlier  exercises  in. 
this  schedule  could  be  replaced  by  exercises  of  a  more  advanced  character. 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  91 

a  single  tongue,  a  half  dovetailed  mortise  and  tenon  joint  with  a 
key,  a  half-blind  dowel-joint,  a  small  door  with  one  panel,  two 
pieces  of  board  dovetailed  together,  a  box  dovetailed  together 
(which  may  be  a  tool-box  with  the  small  door  above  mentioned 
for  a  cover) ,  blind  dovetails,  a  drawer.  Completed  articles  like 
the  following,  which  were  among  those  made  in  one  school  by 
members  of  one  class  :  oak  tool  chest,  antique  oak  table,  walnut 
footstool,  cherry  card  box,  shoe-blacking  stool,  bob  sled,  wall 
cabinet,  centre  table,  book  shelves,  book  case,  mantel  cabinet, 
music  stand,  wash  bench,  screen  door,  chiffonier.  Several  of  these 
articles  required  wood  carving  as  well  as  joinery,  and  would,  there- 
fore, be  properly  placed  after  the  exercises  in  that  branch. 

2.  Exercises  in  wood  carving.  These  are  from  the  Toledo 
Manual  Training  School,  and  are  described  and  pictured  in  Wood- 
ward's "  Manual  Training  School  "  (pages  68-71).  Grooving  or 
fluting  across  the  grain  ;  the  same  with  the  grain  ;  the  same  both 
ways,  the  design  being  a  series  of  rectangles,  one  within  another  ; 
circular  grooving ;  convex  panel  with  tracery ;  engraved  panel 
with  flowing  curves  ;  long  panel  with  engraved  tendril ;  carved 
square  panel ;  quadrifolium  in  relief  ;  long  panel  with  carved  vine 
in  relief  ;  concave  circular  ground  on  square  panel  with  design 
carved  in  high  relief ;  carved  diagonal  panel  with  design  of  over- 
lapping leaves  sharply  undercut. 

3.  Exercises  in  wood-turning.  Turning  a  cylinder,  a  cone,  a 
stepped  cylinder,  a  double-stepped  cylinder,  a  double  cone,  cylin- 
ders and  cones  combined,  small  cylinder  between  larger  ones,  con- 
vex beads,  concave  beads,  sharp-pointed  beads,  long  curves  convex 
and  concave  and  both  combined,  tool  handles,  balusters,  table 
legs,  dumb-bells,  base- ball  bats,  hat  pins,  drawer  knobs,  and  vari- 
ous other  things  of  like  kind  ;  face-plate  work,  three  or  four  pieces 
to  illustrate  the  method,  rosette,  cylindrical  and  oval  cavities  ; 
chuck  work,  as  a  hollow-stepped  cylinder,  rings  and  balls  ;  extra 
pieces,  as  cups,  goblets,  saucers,  napkin  rings,  croquet  balls,  hol- 
low cylindrical  or  spherical  boxes,  and  similar  articles  made  of 
hard  wood  and  finely  finished. 

4.  Exercises  in  pattern  making  and  moulding.  Exercises  in 
moulding  with  patterns  already  made  (left  over  by  last  year's 
class) ,  in  order  to  learn  the  use  of  a  pattern ;  three  prescribed 
exercise  patterns  to  be  made  from  the  pupils'  own  drawings, 
figured  with  the  usual  allowances  for  draft,  shrinkage  and  finish ; 
plaster  casts  of  three  patterns ;  from  two  to  six  other  patterns 
(according  to  time  and  ability),  each  being  tested  either  with 
plaster  or  with  white  metal ;  some  of  the  patterns  after  being 
tested  by  plaster  castings  taken  to  an  iron  foundry,  the  iron  cast- 


92  MANUAL    TRAINING  AND 

ings  there  made  to  be  kept  for  subsequent  exercises  in  the  machine 
shop. 

Articles  suggested  for  casting :  a  simple  grate,  a  bracket,  a 
crank  arm,  a  hose  nozzle,  a  straight-joint  pipe  coupling,  an  elbow- 
joint  pipe  coupling,  a  T-joint  pipe  coupling,  a  globe  valve,  a  pillow 
block,  a  pulley,  a  sheave,  a  cone  pulley.  Also  various  ornamental 
or  useful  articles  in  zinc  or  brass. 

5,  Exercises  in  forging.  All  the  more  difficult  exercises  to  be 
forged  in  cold  lead  before  being  forged  in  hot  iron. 

A  bent  ring  (round  iron)  ;  a  bent  double  ring,  or  figure  8  ;  the 
end  of  a  rod  bent  in  form  of  a  ring ;  drawing  out  and  upsetting, 
as  in  nails,  staples  and  bolts ;  a  hasp  (tapering,  bending  and 
twisting)  ;  angle  irons  (flat  bend  and  edge  bend)  ;  a  hook  hanger  ; 
a  bent  brace  ;  a  fork ;  a  trace-chain  cross-bar  (upset  at  middle 
and  punched,  ends  tapered  and  bent)  ;  fuller  piece  (flat  piece  of 
iron  fullered,  drawn  out  at  each  end  and  swaged)  ;  round  piece  of 
iron  upset  at  middle  and  squared  ;  a  lap  weld  ;  a  tongue  weld  ;  a 
flat  ring  or  ferule,  welded  ;  a  welded  eye  ;  a  piece  of  chain  with 
welded  links,  ring,  hook  and  swivel ;  welded  bolt  heads  ;  a  twisted 
open-work  handle  for  fire  tools  ;  riveting  (the  handle  riveted  to  a 
fire  shovel)  ;  two  pieces  of  boiler  plate  riveted  together  ;  a  pair 
of  blacksmith's  tongs  ;  a  lathe  dog  ;  tempering  ;  forging  and  tem- 
pering a  set  of  machine-shop  tools  (cold  chisel,  threading  tool, 
round-nose  tool,  side  tool,  parting  tool,  diamond  point  and  inside 
tool).  Also  pieces  of  ornamental  work,  as  hall  lamps,  lamp 
stands,  window  grating,  fences,  gates,  cresting,  etc. 

6.  Exercises  in  chipping  and  filing  accurately  to  given  di- 
mensions.    Material,  cast  iron. 

A  square  prism  or  a  cube,  a  rectangular  block  with  chamfered 
edges,  a  hexagonal  prism,  a  piece  for  interior  finish  of  angles,  two 
pieces  fitted  together  with  square  tongue  and  groove,  the  same 
with  dovetail  tongue  and  groove  (die  block),  two  pieces  halved 
together  in  form  of  a  Greek  cross,  hexagonal  bolt  heads  and  nuts, 
a  hexagonal  wrench,  slot-piece,  valve  seat,  gears,  chipping  off 
rivets.  Exercises  with  machine  tools :  some  of  the  foregoing 
repeated  with  planer  and  shaper  and  finished  with  the  file  ;  also, 
a  plain  cylinder,  a  taper-piece,  a  right  and  a  left  handed  screw,  a 
finished  handle,  bolts  and  nuts,  a  lathe  dog,  a  face  plate,  a  pin 
and  flanged  nut,  shaft  couplings,  a  compass  joint  (pair  of  com- 
passes or  calipers),  a  try-square  (for  machinists'  use),  a  jack 
screw,  a  bench  screw,  taps  and  dies.  The  latter  part  of  the  third 
year  will  be  taken  for  fitting,  finishing  and  setting  up  the  steam 
engines,  lathes,  dynamos  or  other  pieces  of  machinery  that  have 
been  selected  for  final  projects. 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  93 

These  courses  of  shop  work  are  recommended  as  good  courses 
to  begin  with,  being  the  outcome  of  considerable  experience  ;  but 
there  is  no  reason  why  desirable  modifications  may  not  be  intro- 
duced at  any  time.  Indeed,  there  is  no  school  in  which  the  shop 
work  has  been  precisely  the  same  from  year  to  year.  Small 
changes  regarded  as  improvements  are  frequently  made,  but  the 
main  features  have  not  been  disturbed. 

The  accommodations  necessary  for  carrying  on  the  course  of 
study  above  described  consist  of  school-rooms,  drawing  rooms 
and  workshops,  with  their  appropriate  adjuncts.  In  deciding  on 
the  number  and  size  of  these,  there  is  one  important  fact  to  be 
kept  in  mind ;  namely,  that  each  school  desk,  work  bench  and 
drawing  table  will  be  occupied  by  three  different  pupils  in  the 
course  of  a  day ;  so  that  the  number  of  desks,  benches  or  tables 
need  never  exceed  one-third  of  the  number  of  the  pupils  to  be 
accommodated.  In  the  ordinary  school,  each  pupil  is  allowed  the 
exclusive  possession  of  one  desk,  which  he  occupies  all  day,  so 
that  the  number  of  desks  must  be  equal  to  the  number  of  pupils. 
But  while,  in  the  proposed  school,  two-thirds  of  the  usual  number 
of  desks  may  be  dispensed  with,  there  will  be  needed  some  pro- 
vision by  which  each  pupil  can  keep  his  books  safe  from  being 
meddled  with  while  not  in  use.  The  same  need  will  arise  also  in 
the  drawing  rooms  and  workshops  ;  indeed,  in  every  room  the 
occupants  of  which  change  from  time  to  time  during  a  day  or 
week.  This  need  should  be  met  by  providing  a  system  of  lockers, 
—  one  locker  for  the  exclusive  use  of  every  occupant  of  the  room. 

Two  plans  for  doing  this  have  found  favor,  which,  for  the  sake 
of  having  names,  may  be  called  the  key-board  plan  and  the  drawer- 
rack  plan. 

By  the  first  or  key-board  plan,  each  bench,  desk  or  table  has 
as  many  locked  drawers  as  it  is  to  have  different  occupants,  so  that 
each  occupant  may  have  exclusive  use  of  one  drawer.  All  the 
keys  belonging  to  the  members  of  one  class  are  kept  on  the  class 
key-board  ;  and  this  key-board  is  inaccessible  at  all  times,  except 
when  the  class  is  in  the  room.  The  teacher  keeps  the  key-boards 
safe  when  not  in  use,  and  has  as  many  of  them  as  he  has  different 
classes  in  the  room. 

By  the  second  or  drawer-rack  plan,  each  bench,  desk  or  table 
is  provided  with  one  place  in  which  a  drawer  may  be  kept  while  in 
use  ;  but  while  not  in  use  all  the  drawers  are  kept  in  a  rack  at  the 
side  of  the  room ;  the  intention  being  that  the  drawers  belonging 
to  any  one  class  shall  be  removed  from  the  racks  and  placed  in  the 
benches,  desks  or  tables  at  the  beginning  of  the  class  session, 
and  put  back  again  at  the  end  of  the  session.     When  the  drawers 


94  MANUAL   TRAINING  AND 

are  placed  in  the  rack,  the  teacher's  key  with  one  motion  locks  or 
unlocks  them  all.  Thus  the  teacher's  trouble  in  working  the  plan 
is  very  slight. 

The  choice  between  these  two  plans  will  be  governed  by  circum- 
stances. For  example,  when  the  drawers  are  large  and  heavy,  as 
those  containing  carpenter's  tools  usually  would  be,  the  key-board 
plan  would  be  the  preferable  one.  But  when  the  drawers  are 
small,  so  as  to  be  carried  across  the  room  without  difficulty,  the 
drawer-rack  plan  would  have  greater  advantages.  In  school-rooms, 
since  a  school  desk  with  three  drawers  in  it  large  enough  to  be 
serviceable  is  an  impossibility,  the  drawer-rack  plan  would  be  the 
only  practicable  one.  The  same  plan  has  been  found  an  excellent 
one  for  the  drawing  rooms  and  the  machine  shop  ;  also  for  the 
blacksmith's  shop,  with  the  further  advantage  in  the  latter  case 
that  the  drawers  need  not  be  taken  from  the  racks. 

The  great  merit  of  these  two  plans  is,  that  they  reduce  the 
number  of  desks,  benches  or  tables  necessary  for  a  given  num- 
ber of  pupils  to  a  minimum.  The  second  or  drawer-rack  plan 
should  be  preferred  whenever  practicable,  for  it  is  the  most 
economical  plan  yet  devised  for  furnishing  rooms  that  are  to  be 
occupied  successively  by  different  classes. 

The  next  point  to  be  considered  is  the  size  of  the  classes  or 
divisions  ;  for  upon  the  number  of  pupils  to  be  instructed  at  one 
time  depends  the  number  of  desks,  benches  or  tables  in  each 
room,  and  the  size  of  the  room.  The  experience  qf  mechanic  arts 
schools  thus  far  seems  to  have  fixed  the  number  twenty-four  as 
the  largest  number  of  pupils  that  can  conveniently  receive  instruc- 
tion at  one  time.  Although  in  some  book  studies  more  than 
twenty-four  pupils  can  be  well  instructed  at  one  time,  yet  in  the 
shop  instruction,  as  in  chemical  and  physical  laboratories,  divisions 
of  twenty-four  have  been  found  fully  large  enough  —  sometimes 
even  too  large  —  for  really  profitable  work.  The  time  may  indeed 
come  when  teaching  skill  in  the  mechanic  arts  will  be  as  highly 
developed  as  it  now  is  in  the  academic  branches.  When  that  time 
comes,  it  may  be  practicable  to  make  classes  in  shops  and  labora- 
tories as  large  as  those  in  school-rooms  ;  but  for  the  present  it 
would  seem  unwise  to  go  beyond  what  experience  has  shown  to 
be  fairly  within  reach.  Twenty-four  pupils,  then,  should  be 
assumed  as  the  basis  for  determining  the  number  of  desks, 
benches  or  tables  in  a  room ;  and  these  in  their  turn  will  deter- 
mine the  size  of  the  room. 

As  each  room  would  be  occupied  in  the  course  of  the  day  by 
three  different  divisions  of  twenty-four  pupils  each,  the  total  capac- 
ity of  a  room  furnished  with  twenty-four  places  would  be  seventy- 


INDUSTEIAL   EDUCATION.  95 

two  pupils.  Thus,  a  class  of  seventy-two  members  would  need  for 
its  whole  work  one  school-room,  one  shop  and  one  other  room, 
which  other  room  would  be  either  a  drawing  room  or  a  laboratory. 
Assuming  that  the  school  to  be  provided  for  would  have  a  course 
three  years  long,  and  therefore  three  classes,  —  junior,  middle  and 
senior,  —  each  with  seventy-two  pupils  in  three  divisions,  or  two 
hundred  and  sixteen  pupils  in  all,  there  would  be  needed  three 
school-rooms,  three  shops  and  three  other  rooms,  or  nine  rooms 
in  all.  These  rooms  would  be  occupied  all  the  time,  and  would 
constitute  the  least  provision  that  would  meet  the  conditions  of 
the  case.  But  the  number  of  rooms  actually  found  necessary  by 
reason  of  the  different  kinds  of  work  to  be  done  is  somewhat 
greater,  —  four  shops  instead  of  three,  and  four  other  rooms  (that 
is,  two  drawing  rooms,  a  chemical  and  a  physical  laboratory) 
instead  of  three  ;  or,  in  all,  eleven  rooms  instead  of  nine.  Such 
would  be  the  provision  for  a  school  of  two  hundred  and  sixteen 
pupils.  A  smaller  school  could  hardly  do  with  less  ;  but  a  school 
of  double  the  size  would  not  need  to  duplicate  the  whole  pro- 
vision. 

The  school-rooms,  drawing  rooms,  chemical  and  physical  labora- 
tories need  not  be  particularly  described  in  this  report,  since  no 
special  modifications  in  such  rooms  have  been  found  necessary  to 
adapt  them  to  the  wants  of  a  mechanic  arts  school. 

But  the  shops,  being  a  wholly  new  feature  in  school  accommo- 
dations, need  to  be  described  fully.     They  are  :  — 

1.  The  first  wood-working  room,  or  carpenter's  shop. 

2.  The  second  wood-working  room,  or  pattern-maker's  shop. 

3.  The  first  metal- working  room,  or  blacksmith's  shop  and 
foundry. 

4.  The  second  metal- working  room,  or  machine  shop. 
Necessary  adjuncts  to  these  are  the  engine  room,  the  boiler  room, 

a  store  room  for  lumber  near  the  wood- working  rooms,  a  mould- 
ing shed  near  the  foundry  and  wash  rooms.  The  best  shape  and 
size  for  all  four  of  the  shops  would  be  thirty-six  feet  wide  by  forty- 
eight  long.  These  dimensions  are  large  enough,  but  two  feet  more 
each  way  would  not  be  space  thrown  away.  The  shops  should 
all  be  high,  well  lighted  (on  three  sides  if  possible)  by  windows 
running  clear  to  the  top.  There  should  be  as  much  window  space 
as  possible,  consistent  with  due  strength  in  the  walls  of  the  build- 
ing, for  abundance  of  light  is  a  matter  of  the  very  highest  im- 
portance. In  planning  a  new  building,  this  consideration  would 
govern  all  others  except  the  stability  of  the  structure. 

Another  matter  of  some  importance  is  the  placing  of  the  rooms 
relatively  to  one  another.     Two  of  the  shops  are  to  be  furnished 


96  MAI^UAL    TKAE^INa   AND 

with  machinery  and  two  are  not.  By  placing  the  two  latter 
together  in  one  wing  a  freedom  from  the  troublesome  jar  of 
machinery  is  secured  for  that  wing.  Here  the  drawing  rooms 
should  be  placed  ;  for  it  has  been  found  that  drawing  rooms  placed 
over  moving  machinery  are  seriously  troubled  by  the  vibration. 

Again,  it  is  important  that  the  two  wood-working  rooms  should 
be  of  easy  access  the  one  from  the  other  ;  and  the  same  advan- 
tage is  even  more  important  in  regard  to  the  two  metal-working 
rooms.  This  advantage  would  be  secured  by  placing  the  two 
metal-working  rooms  in  the  first  story,  and  the  two  wood-working 
rooms  in  the  second  story.  Then,  by  placing  the  blacksmith's 
shop  under  the  carpenter's  shop,  one  side  of  the  building  would 
have  no  machinery.  Between  the  shops  on  each  floor  would  be 
placed  the  wash  rooms,*  together  with  the  lumber  store  room  above 
and  the  moulding  shed  below.  But  further  details  with  regard  to 
the  arrangement  of  a  building  would  seem  uncalled  for,  and  may 
well  be  postponed  until  the  prospect  of  an  actual  building  to 
be  arranged  becomes  immediate.  Meanwhile,  attention  may  be 
directed  to  the  furnishings  of  the  four  shops,  —  the  benches,  the 
tools  and  the  machinery, — all  of  which  would  be  the  same,  in 
whatever  building  the  shops  were  placed. 

1.  The  first  wood-working  room,  or  carpenter's  shop,  should 
contain  twenty-five  carpenter's  benches  —  one  being  for  the 
teacher  —  and  one  grindstone. 

Within  easy  reach  from  both  wood-working  rooms  should  be  a 
circular  saw  and  a  jig  saw.  These  saws  are  not  for  the  teachers' 
use  alone  ;  the  boys  should  be  taught  to  use  them  with  care.  The 
benches  should  be  placed  with  head  to  the  light,  and  the  teacher's 
bench  should  have  a  space  behind  it  where  the  whole  class  can 
gather  occasionally  to  receive  instruction.  The  best  dimensions 
for  the  benches  are  six  feet  long,  two  feet  wide,  and  thirty,  thirty- 
two  and  thirty-four  inches  high.  The  different  heights  are  for 
boys  of  different  stature. 

The  top  of  the  bench  should  be  a  thick  hard-wood  plank,  which 
may  be  removed  occasionally  and  given  a  new  smooth  surface. 
Each  bench  should  be  provided  with  a  good  carpenter's  vise  — 
jaws  long  and  on  a  level  with  the  top  of  the  bench  —  and  with  one 
drawer  to  hold  the  tools  that  belong  with  the  bench.  Then  there 
would  be  needed  seventy-two  other  tool  drawers,  to  contain  the 
tools  for  which  each  pupil  is  held  individually  responsible.     These 

*  Since  this  was  written  the  plans  for  the  Mechanic  Arts  High  School  in  Boston 
have  been  drawn,  providing  ample  washing  facilities  and  individual  clothes  closets 
in  the  well-lighted  basement.  This  is  believed  to  be  a  better  plan  than  the  one  above 
suggested. 


INDUSTKIAL    EDUCATION.  97 

seventy- two  drawers  would  be  placed  either  in  the  benches,  three 
in  each  bench,  or  in  racks  at  the  side  of  the  room,  according  as 
the  "key-board  plan"  or  the  "drawer-rack  plan,"  already  de- 
scribed, should  be  adopted  for  this  shop.  Under  the  key-board 
plan  each  bench  would  have  four  drawers,  one  for  the  bench  tools, 
which  need  not  be  locked,  and  three  for  individual  tools,  which 
should  be  kept  locked  with  keys  that  are  kept  on  the  class  key- 
board. This  may  be  the  preferable  plan  ;  but  if  carrying  the  rather 
large  drawers  of  tools  across  the  room  at  the  beginning  and  end  of 
every  lesson  be  not  considered  a  serious  objection,  there  may  be  an 
advantage  in  the  drawer-rack  plan  ;  for  under  that  plan  each  bench 
would  have  but  one  drawer,  —  that  for  the  bench  tools,  —  and  a 
place  for  holding  another  drawer  while  its  owner  was  working  at 
the  bench.  Thus  there  would  be  room  under  the  bench  for  a  pair 
of  trestles,  and  the  inconvenience  of  using  lower  drawers  would  be 
obviated.  But  the  choice  between  these  two  plans  might  turn  on 
circumstances  not  now  foreseen.  Either  plan  would  be  preferable 
to  the  plan  hitherto  usual,  by  which  the  bench  tools  are  kept  on 
a  tool  board  attached  to  the  bench,  extending  nearly  its  whole 
length,  and  rising  above  its  top  about  two  feet.  These  tool  boards 
are  seriously  inconvenient  in  several  ways,  and  the  problem  has 
been  how  to  get  rid  of  them.  Either  of  the  plans  above  suggested 
is  believed  to  be  a  satisfactory  solution. 

As  already  implied,  there  is  a  classification  of  the  tools  to  be 
supplied  in  the  carpenter's  shop.  There  are,  first,  the  tools  which 
the  pupil  needs  to  have  constantly  within  reach,  but  which  are 
not  likely  to  be  kept  in  good  condition  unless  some  one  is  held 
individually  responsible  for  them.  These  are  planes,  chisels  and 
gouges,  —  indeed,  all  edged  tools  that  are  in  constant  or  frequent 
use.  Such  tools  are  issued  to  each  pupil  at  the  beginning  of  a 
term,  and  are  kept  by  him  in  the  drawer  provided  for  his  individual 
use,  as  above  described.     They  may  be  called  individual  tools. 

Then,  secondly,  there  are  tools  which  the  pupil  needs  to  have 
constantly  at  hand,  but  which  need  no  special  care  to  keep  them 
in  good  condition.  These  are  hammers,  mallets,  chalk-lines,  try- 
squares,  compasses,  screw  drivers,  etc.  They  are  issued  one  to 
each  bench,  and  may  be  called  bench  tools.  They  are  kept  in  the 
drawer  provided  for  them . 

Thirdly,  there  are  the  tools  which  are  not  in  constant  or  frequent 
use,  and  which  may  be  kept  in  the  teacher's  tool  closet,  thence  to 
be  issued  on  check  to  the  several  pupils  who  may  need  occasionally 
to  borrow  them.     These  may  be  called  occasional  tools. 

Of  the  occasional  tools,  one  or  two  of  a  kind  would  generally 
be  found  a  sufficient  supply  for  the  whole  shop.     Of  the  bench 


98  MANUAL    TKAl]SflNG   AND 

tools,  there  would  be  needed  as  many  of  each  kind  as  there  were 
benches ;  and  of  the  individual  tools,  as  many  as  there  were 
pupils. 

To  provide  so  large  a  number  of  individual  tools  is  somewhat 
costly,  but  seems  not  uncalled  for.  There  has  been  some  expe- 
rience on  this  point  worth  considering.  There  are  schools  in  which 
no  provision  of  individual  tools  is  made,  the  edged  tools  in  most 
frequent  use  being  supplied  only  as  bench  tools.  The  economy  of 
such  a  plan  is  evident,  but  the  great  objection  to  it  is  the  practical 
certainty  that  the  edged  tools  so  used  will  be  constantly  in  bad 
condition.  A  boy  finding  the  plane  dull  will  not  be  disposed  to 
take  the  utmost  pains  to  put  it  in  perfect  order,  and  leave  it  so,  if 
he  knows  that  before  he  will  use  it  again  others  will  use  it  and 
leave  it  dull ;  but  if  he  can  be  secured  the  full  benefit  of  his 
pains  in  sharpening  his  tools,  he  will  be  disposed  to  keep  them 
always  in  the  best  of  order.  This  is  what  we  might  have  expected 
beforehand,  and  experience  has  realized  the  expectation.  Now, 
it  is  well  known  that  accurate  joinery  depends  on  the  sharpness  of 
the  cutting  tools,  —  good  joints  cannot  be  made  with  dull  tools,  — 
and  it  is  an  observed  fact  that  the  quality  of  the  carpenter  work  is 
distinctly  better  in  those  schools  which  provide  each  pupil  with  a 
kit  of  edged  tools  for  his  exclusive  use. 

The  extra  outlay  required  by  such  provision  of  individual 
tools  seems  fully  justified  by  the  better  results  that  are  sure  to 
follow.  Without  this  provision  it  seems  hardly  practicable  to 
teach  the  boys  that  best  accomplishment  of  a  good  workman,  — 
the  art  of  keeping  his  tools  in  perfect  order. 

The  following  lists  of  tools  are  given  as  approximate  state- 
ments of  what  may  be  needed.  The  third  list,  consisting  of 
special  tools  for  occasional  use,  could  be  extended  at  moderate 
cost,  as  needs  might  arise. 

Lists  of  tools  for  the  carpenter's  shop  :  — 

(a)  Individual  tools,  one  for  each  pupil :  jack  plane,  jointer 
(22"),  smoothing  plane,  block  plane,  set  of  chisels  (|",  ^",  |", 
1",  2"),gouges(L",^",  3/',  1"). 

(6)  Bench  tools,  one  to  each  bench:  cross-cut  saw  (20"),  rip 
saw  (20"),  back  saw,  claw  hammer,  mallet,  try-square,  bevel, 
compasses,  marking  gauge,  mortise  gauge,  two-foot  rule,  small 
steel  square,  nail  set,  screw  driver,  bit  brace,  oil  stone,  oil  can, 
bench  brush  and  pair  of  trestles. 

(c)  Occasional  tools,  one,  two  or  more  of  a  kind,  as  may  be 
needed :  hatchets,  draw  shaves,  spoke  shaves,  wood  rasps,  wood 
files,  compass  saws,  bits  of  all  sorts  and  sizes,  monkey  wrench, 
clamps,  pair  matching  planes,  beading  planes,  moulding  planes, 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  99 

rabbeting  planes,  plough,  fillister,  and  as  many  full  sets  of 
wood-carving  tools  as  migtit  be  needed. 

The  tool  closet  is  intended  for  both  wood-worlving  rooms, 
hence  the  foregoing  list  is  fuller  than  would  be  necessary  for 
one  room  alone.  In  the  tool  closet  should  be  kept  a  supply  of 
glue,  sand-paper,  shellac,  stains,  varnish,  nails,  brads  and  screws. 

The  cost  of  the  benches  and  tools  for  the  first  wood-working 
room,  as  above  described,  should  not  exceed  $1,500. 

2.  The  second  wood-working  room,  or  pattern-maker's  shop. 
This  should  be  furnished  with  benches  and  tools  in  much  the 
same  way  as  the  other  shop  was  furnished,  with  the  important 
addition,  however,  of  twenty-four  wood- turning  lathes.  In  some 
shops  the  lathes  are  attached  to  the  benches,  which,  for  economy 
of  space,  are  made  double  ;  but  a  better  arrangement  appears  to 
be  to  place  the  lathes  by  themselves  around  the  edge  of  the 
room  near  the  windows,  and  then  to  place  the  benches  so  that 
each  one  may  stand  near  a  lathe,  thus  allowing  the  boy  using 
both  to  step  readily  from  one  to  the  other.  By  this  arrange- 
ment the  boys  are  not  exposed  to  each  other's  turning  chips, 
as  they  are  when  the  lathes  are  attached  to  the  double  benches. 

If  the  room  be  well  lighted,  the  benches  may  be  placed  far 
enough  away  from  the  windows  to  allow  the  lathes  to  be  placed 
as  proposed.  The  benches  in  this  room  are  in  all  respects  like 
those  in  the  carpenter's  shop,  except  that  the  vises  are  of  the 
variety  known  as  coach-makers'  vises,  the  jaws  of  which  are 
some  six  or  eight  inches  above  the  top  of  the  bench. 

The  tools  to  be  supplied  to  this  sliop  are  substantially  the 
same  as  those  supplied  to  the  carpenter's  shop,  with  the  addition 
to  the  individual  tools  of  a  few  tools  for  turning.  The  turning 
tools  should  be  two  turning  gouges  (i",  |"),  two  turning  chisels 
(I",  I"),  one  parting  tool,  one  round-nose  tool,  and  one  pair  of 
calipers  (5").  Any  other  tools  that  may  be  needed  may  be 
added  to  the  occasional  tools  already  provided  in  the  carpenter's 
shop,  the  closet  containing  them  being  accessible  from  this  shop 
as  well  as  from  the  other. 

The  cost  of  furnishing  the  pattern-maker's  shop  in  the  manner 
described  should  not  exceed  $2,000. 

3.  The  first  metal-working  room  or  blacksmith's  shop.  This 
shop  will  necessarily  be  placed  on  the  ground,  for  it  should  have 
no  wooden  floor  ;  and  the  anvils  should  be  mounted  on  posts  run- 
ning down  some  four  feet  into  the  ground.  Twenty-four  anvils, 
twelve  double  forges,  a  teacher's  anvil  and  forge,  hoods  over  the 
forges,  smoke  pipes  and  an  exhaust  fan  to  draw  out  the  smoke 
are  the  furnishings  required  for  the  principal  business   of   this 


100  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

room.  If  metals  of  any  kind  are  used  for  casting,  the  melting 
furnace  should  be  placed  in  this  shop  and  the  casting  should 
be  done  here.  The  moulding  trays  are  stored,  wlien  not  in  use,  in 
some  adjoining  room  or  shed  ;  but  when  in  use  some  of  them  may 
be  placed  temporarily  in  this  shop.  Hence,  the  whole  provision 
for  moulding  and  casting  may  be  considered  as  belonging  to  the 
first  metal-working  room  ;  in  other  words,  this  room  is  a  foundry 
as  well  as  a  smithy.  As  already  stated,  the  use  of  iron  for  casting 
is  not  contemplated. 

The  tools  needed  for  forging  are  all  of  the  kind  named  bench 
tools;  that  is,  all  the  occupants  of  one  forge  use  the  same  kit  of 
tools.     There  is  no  reason  for  providing  individual  tools. 

The  tools  at  each  forge  are  one  anvil  (84  pounds) ,  blacksmith's 
hammer  (1^  pounds),  four  pairs  tongs  (|-",  f",  i",  |"),  a  poker,  a 
rake,  a  shovel,  a  sprinkler,  a  hardy,  a  steel  square  and  a  leather 
apron.  One  sledge  to  two  forges.  Occasional  tools,  as  cold 
chisels,  punches,  etc.,  are  not  numerous.  Moulding  trays  should 
be  4^  feet  long  by  1^  feet  wide  and  1  foot  deep,  the  top  being 
about  30  inches  from  the  floor.  Over  one  end  of  the  tray  should 
be  placed  a  movable  board  1^  feet  square.  The  backs  of  the  trays 
may  come  up  high  enough  to  hang  the  tools  on,  provided  they 
do  not  obstruct  the  light ;  but  if  they  do  they  should  be  dispensed 
with. 

The  tools  needed  for  moulding  are  a  small  shovel,  a  twelve-inch 
brass-wire  sieve  {^"  mesh) ,  a  moulder's  trowel  (1"  X  4") ,  a  quarter- 
inch  lifter,  a  draw  spike  (6''  long,  ^"  diameter),  a  larger  draw 
spike  (8"  X  |"),  a  vent  wire,  two  rammers  (1^"  and  3"  diameter), 
a  dredging-box,  several  conical  wooden  plugs,  a  straight-edge,  a 
small  sponge  and  a  small  square  piece  of  tin  bent  to  form  a  gate 
cutter.  Most  of  the  moulder's  tools  can  be  made  by  the  boys,  and 
so  may  some  of  the  blacksmith's  tools.  The  making  of  a  pair  of 
blacksmith's  tongs,  for  example,  is  an  excellent  exercise  in  forg- 
ing, and  the  product  is  usually  worth  keeping  for  use.  The  turn- 
ing of  wooden  tool  handles  is  a  good  exercise  towards  the  end  of 
the  first  year  in  school.  The  second  year's  work  includes  the  mak- 
ing of  a  number  of  tools  that  will  be  used  in  the  blacksmith's  or 
the  machine  shop. 

For  the  forges,  anvils,  moulding  trays,  blacksmith's  and  moulder's 
tools  a  safe  estimate  is  $1,200.  For  the  smoke  pipes,  exhaust 
fan  and  power  blast  necessary  for  ventilating  the  room  and  blow- 
ing the  fires  no  close  estimate  can  be  made  until  the  conditions  of 
the  actual  room  to  be  ventilated  are  known.  But  allowing  $1,300 
for  this,  the  total  estimate  for  this  room  will  be  $2,500. 

4.     The  second  metal-working  room,  or  machine  shop.     This 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION.  101 

shop  is  furnished  with  a  machinist's  bench  around  the  outside  of 
the  room,  and  with  machinery  filling  the  rest  of  the  floor  space. 
On  the  bench  are  twenty-four  machinist's  vises,  and  underneath 
are  drawers  for  the  bench  tools  and  places  for  other  drawers,  which 
are  kept  in  a  drawer  rack.  These  drawers  are  not  large,  and  so 
the  drawer-rack  plan  will  be  convenient  for  the  machine  shop. 
The  bench  on  one  side  of  the  room  should  be  lower  than  that  on 
the  other,  and  the  shorter  boys  should  be  placed  at  the  lower 
bench. 

The  machinery  should  consist  of  twelve  engine  lathes  (some 
larger,  others  smaller) ,  four  speed  lathes,  one  planer,  one  shaper, 
one  goose-neck  drill,  one  post  drill,  two  emery  grinders  and  a  gas 
forge.  The  1)671011  tools  consist  of  a  machinist's  hammer,  a  pair  of 
compasses,  a  pair  of  calipers,  a  measuring  scale  and  a  set  of  files. 
The  individual  tools  are  the  tools  made  by  the  pupils  the  preceding 
year  for  use  in  the  machine  shop.  They  are  cold  chisels,  centre 
punch,  centre  chisel,  threading  tool,  round-nose  tool,  side  tool, 
parting  tool,  diamond-point  tool,  inside  tool.  These  were  forged 
and  tempered  last  year.  This  year  they  are  to  be  ground  to  the 
proper  shapes  and  kept  in  good  condition  under  the  teacher's 
directions.  The  occasional  tools  to  be  issued  on  check  are  not 
numerous,  and  may  be  supplied  as  needs  arise. 

The  cost  of  the  machinery  will  vary  widely,  according  to  the 
different  patterns  and  sizes  and  with  different  makers  ;  but  with 
any  machinery  at  all  suited  to  the  purposes  in  view  the  expense 
of  furnishing  the  machine  shop  will  be  large.  The  opinion  of 
those  who  have  had  experience  is  that  small  and  cheap  machines 
are  not  worth  buying.  Solid  machines  of  the  best  construction 
are  needed  to  stand  the  wear  and  tear  of  school  shop  use.  Indeed, 
the  same  remark  applies  to  all  the  machinery  and  all  the  tools 
throughout  the  shops.  They  should  all  be  the  best  of  their  kind. 
Inferior  tools  are  not  easily  kept  in  good  order,  and  inferior  work 
is  the  result.  It  is  not  safe  to  estimate  the  expense  of  tools  and 
machinery  in  the  machine  shop  at  less  than  $6,000. 

Estimates  for  the  wash  rooms  would  depend  so  much  on  the 
plan  and  style  of  plumbing  adopted  and  on  local  circumstances 
that  they  may  here  be  omitted.  Caps,  aprons,  blouses,  overalls, 
soap  and  towels  should  be  kept  in  the  individual  drawers  in  the 
two  wood-working  rooms,  for  there  the  drawers  are  large  enough 
to  hold  these  things  ;  but  in  the  blacksmith's  shop,  and  possibly  in 
the  machine  shop,  pigeon-holes  should  be  provided  for  the  pur- 
pose. In  these  pigeon-holes  or  in  the  individual  drawers,  as  the 
case  may  be,  are  to  be  kept  any  unfinished  pieces  of  work  the 
teachers  may  prefer  to  have  cared  for  by  the  pupils  themselves. 


102  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

Such  are  the  four  shops,  with  their  furnishings  and  the  tools. 
These  shops  are  not  fully  occupied  all  the  time,  for  there  are  four 
shops  and  only  three  classes.  But  it  does  not  appear  to  be  practi- 
cable to  carry  on  the  proposed  work  in  fewer  shops.  To  explain 
briefly  how  the  shops  would  be  occupied,  let  the  school  year  be 
divided  into  three  equal  terms,  say  of  thirteen  weeks  each.  A 
class  in  passing  through  the  school  in  three  years  would  spend  the 
nine  terms  as  follows  :  the  first  and  second  in  the  carpenter's  shop, 
the  third  and  fourth  in  the  pattern  maker's  shop,  the  fifth  and 
sixth  in  the  blacksmith's  shop,  and  the  seventh,  eighth  and  ninth 
in  the  machine  shop.  Thus,  apparently,  the  carpenter's  shop 
would  be  vacant  in  the  third  term  of  the  year,  the  pattern  shop 
vacant  the  second  term,  and  the  blacksmith's  shop  the  first  term. 
But  these  shops  would  not  be  wholly  unoccupied  in  the  terms 
mentioned,  for  the  boys  in  the  pattern  shop  during  the  first  term  of 
the  year  would  use  the  blacksmith's  shop  to  some  extent  for 
moulding  and  casting,  and  boys  in  the  machine  shop  during  the 
second  term  of  the  year  will  need  to  use  the  pattern  shop  to  some 
extent  in  making  patterns  for  their  projects,  or  during  the  third 
term  of  the  year  might  need  occasionally  to  use  benches  in  the 
carpenter's  shop.  Thus  the  provision  of  four  workshops  for  three 
classes  appears  to  give  no  more  than  a  reasonable  margin  for  con- 
venience in  working. 

As  regards  organizing  the  school,  it  may  be  assumed  that  the 
full  school  of  three  classes  would  not  be  in  operation  until  the  be- 
ginning of  the  third  year,  and  the  full  equipment  of  tools  and 
machinery  would  not  be  needed  until  that  time  ;  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  it  will  be  necessary  to  order  the  machinery  six  months  or  a 
year  in  advance  of  the  time  when  it  will  go  into  use. 

At  the  start  the  school  would  need  to  have  ready  one  school- 
room, one  drawing  room,  and  the  second  wood-working  room,  with 
its  benches,  lathes  and  tools.  This  would  provide  for  the  shop 
work  for  one  full  year  and  some  weeks  of  the  second  year,  assum- 
ing, as  already  explained,  that  the  entering  class  would  not  exceed 
seventy-two  in  number. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  second  year  the  first  wood-working 
room  should  be  ready  ;  and  then,  or  very  soon  afterwards,  the 
blacksmith's  shop  ;  both  with  their  outfit  of  tools,  including  also 
trays  and  tools  for  moulding,  and  the  melting  furnace.  Another 
school-room  would  also  be  needed  at  this  time. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  third  year  the  machine  shop  should  be 
ready ;  also  another  school-room  and  a  second  drawing  room. 
Thus  the  full  school  of  two  hundred  and  sixteen  boys  would  be 


, INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  103 

provided  with  rooms,  except  in  the  matter  of  chemical  and  physi- 
cal laboratories.  If  foreign  language  should  take  the  place  of 
these  sciences  in  the  course  of  study,  —  which  has  been  left  an 
open  question,  —  then  these  laboratories  would  not  be  needed. 
It  is  also  possible  that  one  of  the  drawing  rooms  might  be  large 
enough  to  accommodate  the  work  in  physics.  Therefore  the  pro- 
vision of  the  chemical  and  physical  laboratories  may  be  left  an 
open  question  for  the  present. 

Respecting  the  appointment  of  teachers,  it  may  not  be  out  of 
place  to  remark  on  a  few  points  of  prime  importance.  The  prin- 
cipal of  the  school  should  be  a  man  in  thorough  sympathy  with 
the  kind  of  work  the  school  is  to  do.  If  he  should  have  some 
practical  knowledge  of  shop  work  himself,  so  much  the  better. 
He  should  be  a  man  of  full  academic  training,  a  man  of  experience, 
and  accustomed  to  the  management  of  large  schools.  He  should 
have  supervision  and  control  over  the  entire  school  in  all  its 
branches  of  work.  His  rank  and  salary  should  be  equal  to  those 
of  other  high  school  principals  of  the  city. 

After  the  selection  of  the  right  man  for  principal,  the  next  most 
difficult  matter  will  be  the  finding  of  entirely  suitable  persons  to 
be  assistants  in  the  different  branches  of  shop  work.  To  find  a 
good  carpenter,  a  good  blacksmith  or  a  good  machinist  is  com- 
paratively an  easy  matter.  But  this  is  not  enough.  The  men 
selected  must  possess  the  faculty  of  imparting  their  knowledge  to 
classes.  They  must  possess  the  essential  qualifications  of  a  good 
teacher,  —  must  know  not  only  the  art  they  would  teach,  but  the 
art  of  teaching.  Sometimes  it  happens  that  a  practical  mechanic 
has  had  in  his  youth  a  thorough  academic  and  even  a  collegiate 
education.  If  such  a  person  could  be  found  who  also  had  the 
gift  of  teaching,  his  combination  of  qualifications  would  be  the 
best.  The  discovery  of  such  persons  may  appear  difficult,  but  it 
is  not  a  hopeless  task ;  in  proof  of  which  might  be  named  a  college 
graduate,  who,  after  taking  his  degree,  passed  seven  years  in  a 
machine  shop,  and  is  now  a  highly  successful  teacher  in  a  mechanic 
arts  school.  Still,  it  must  be  recognized  that  the  happy  com- 
bination of  all  the  desirable  qualifications  is  rare,  and  cannot 
reasonably  be  insisted  on. 

What  ought,  however,  to  be  insisted  on  as  absolutely  essential, 
is  that  any  assistant  teacher,  in  whatever  capacity  employed, 
should  have  the  habit  of  using  the  English  language  clearly  and 
correctly.  Too  much  emphasis  cannot  be  laid  on  the  importance 
of  taking  care  lest  the  introduction  of  sewing,  of  cooking,  or  of 
manual  training  in  any  form  into  the  schools  become  a  source 
of  injury  to  them,  through  the  appointment  of  persons  to  teach 


104  MANUAL    TRAINING. 

these   things  whose   instructiou  would  be  conveyed  in  ill-chosen 
or  incorrect  language. 

Of  course  it  needs  no  pointing  out  that  the  moral  character 
and  personal  habits  of  any  person  appointed  to  teach  anything 
should  be  wholly  unexceptionable. 

Note.  —  In  submitting  the  foregoing  report  to  the  Boston  school 
committee,  the  writer  made  use  of  the  following  language  touching 
the  name  of  the  proposed  school :  "  In  closing  this  report,  I  wish  to 
make  one  remark  about  tlie  name  to  be  given  to  the  proposed  school. 
I  have  used  [in  describing  my  visits]  the  name  by  which  all  the 
schools  visited  are  designated  —  the  Manual  Training  School.  The  name 
has  obtained  wide,  almost  universal,  currency  during  the  last  eight  or 
nine  years.  I  have  elsewhere  given  my  reasons  for  preferring  a  more 
truly  descriptive  name,  the  Mechanic  Arts  High  School ;  and  this  name 
has  been  used  by  me  in  the  preparation  of  the  [above]  plan.  But 
now  the  feeling  comes  upon  me  that,  in  view  of  the  wide  currency 
the  other  name  has  already  obtained,  it  might  justly  be  deemed 
pedantic  to  persist  in  the  use  of  a  name  which  up  to  the  present  time 
has  not  been  affixed  to  any  school  of  the  kind  denoted.  I  wish, 
therefore,  to  leave  the  question  of  name  an  open  one,  still  believing 
in  the  validity  of  the  reasons  I  have  adduced  in  favor  of  the  more 
truly  descriptive  name,  the  Mechanic  Arts  High  School,  but  ready  to 
bow  to  usage,  the  arbiter  in  all  questions  of  language,  if  it  should 
be  thought  best  to  adopt  the  other  name." 

This  was  written  in  1889,  since  which  time  the  question  of  name 
has  received  consideration,  and  the  Mechanic  Arts  High  School  has 
been  adopted.  Perhaps  the  main  reason  for  this  conclusion  is  the 
fact  that  the  term  mammal  trainiJig  has  come  to  be  used  with  a  very 
broad  application,  —  much  too  broad  to  be  safely  employed  to  desig- 
nate the  rather  specific  nature  of  manual  instruction  in  high  schools. 
That  instruction,  in  so  far  at  least  as  boys  are  concerned,  relates  to 
mechanic  arts,  and  to  nothing  else.  Hence  the  term  mechanic  arts  is 
the  best  specific  epithet  to  \ise.  Moreover,  the  term  high  school  is 
needed  to  mark  the  place  or  rank  of  the  school  in  the  system  of 
schools.  It  stands  above  grammar  schools,  and  side  by  side  with  ^he 
Latin  hig'li  schools  and  the  Eng-lish  hio^h  schools. 


o 

m 
o 

m 

o 
o 

o 

o 

£ 

m 
h 
PC 
<l 

o 

l-H 

o 


o 

m 
o 
pq 

o 
o 

O     ctj 

W    o 

o 

K   r' 

l-rl         E-1 

o 
o 


Lf  NOnVfl 


X 

1 

O 

H 
m 
o 

« 

o 
o 

ffi     . 
o    ^ 


en 


o 
o 

X    fc 

X  § 
o 

< 

X 
o 

w 


108  MANUAL    TRAINING  AND 


Appendix  B  . 


MANUAL  TRAINING  IN  BROOKLINE.* 
By  JOHN  D.  RUNKLE,  Member  of  the  Brookline  School  Committee. 


This  report  of  a  concrete  case  of  the  introduction  of  manual 
training  is  offered  as  an  example,  and  perhaps  as  an  aid  and  guide, 
to  those  who  may  wish  to  modify  their  public  school  instruction  in 
the  same  direction. 

At  the  same  time,  it  is  believed  that  the  value  of  systematic 
training  in  hand-work,  as  an  important  factor  in  mind  training,  is 
so  fully  recognized  and  admitted  that  it  will  not  be  necessary  to 
devote  much  of  this  report  to  this  phase  of  the  subject.  It  has 
become  a  question  of  how,  rather  than  why ;  and  it  is  obvious 
that  the  steps  here  outlined  must  be  modified  to  meet  the  condi- 
tions of  special  cases. 

About  the  year  1880  it  had  become  apparent  that  the  Ward 
Grammar  School  must  soon  have  a  new  building ;  and,  further, 
that  the  proposed  Muddy  River  improvement  would  in  a  short 
time  make  it  necessary  to  select  a  new  site  for  this  school.  In 
connection  with  these  conditions  the  school  committee  and  a  few 
others  were  led  to  the  consideration  of  the  importance  of  a  modifi- 
cation of  the  course  of  study  for  this  school  when  it  should  be 
removed  to  its  new  quarters. 

Very  naturally,  attention  was  turned  towards  the  subject  of 
manual  training  as  a  part  of  a  grammar-school  course  of  study. 
At  this  date  the  methods  to  be  followed  in  technical  and  other 
advanced  schools  had  already  taken  pretty  definite  shape  ;  but  it 
was  still  an  unsettled  question  as  to  what  extent,  if  at  all,  these 
methods  could  be  utilized  in  the  grammar  and  lower-grade  schools, 
as  an  integral  and  definite  factor  in  their  courses  of  instruction. 


*  A  Report  on  the  Introduction  and  Progress  of  Manual  Training  in  the  Public 
Schools,  prepared  at  the  request  of  the  Commission  on  Manual  Training  and  Indus- 
trial Education. 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION.  109 

It  became  important,  therefore,  to  get,  if  possible,  some  expe- 
rience to  guide  the  committee  when  the  time  should  come  to  take 
action  in  the  matter,  and  it  may  be  well  to  include  a  brief  account 
of  the  tentative  steps  which  were  taken  to  this  end,  as  shown  in 
the  successive  reports  of  the  school  committee.  As  these  reports 
were  drawn  up  by  the  writer  of  this  paper,  they  may  without  im- 
propriety be  freely  used  in  this  connection. 

During  the  school  year  of  1880-81  the  school  committee  re- 
ferred the  matter  of  vacation  schools  to  the  advisory  committee, — 
a  committee  of  ladies  to  whom  it  had  been  customary  to  refer 
such  questions  relating  to  the  schools  of  the  town  as  needed 
special  attention,  and  were  not  at  the  time  a  necessary  part  of 
their  current  work. 

It  was  finally  decided  by  the  advisory  board  to  establish  a 
vacation  school  of  carpentry  for  boys,  the  age  of  admission  to 
be  not  less  than  twelve  years.  The  expense  of  this  first  ex- 
periment was  borne  by  private  subscription.  The  only  part  of 
the  report  of  the  advisory  board  for  the  year  relating  to  this 
matter  is  as  follows  :  — 

The  trial  of  an  industrial  vacation  school  last  summer,  after  the 
inevitable  mistakes  of  an  experiment  were  conquered,  proved  a  suc- 
cess, which  we  hope  very  much  will  be  recognized  by  the  town,  and 
that  money  will  be  appropriated  for  the  regular  maintenance  of  such 
teaching  for  the  boys. 

The  town,  in  accordance  with  this  advice,  voted  the  sum  of 
$250  to  continue  the  school  during  the  summer  of  1882,  and 
the  school  committee  appointed  a  special  committee  to  co-oper- 
ate with  the  advisory  board. 

It  ought  to  be  added  to  the  above  statement  of  the  advisory 
board  that  the  first  experiment  was  beset  by  three  grave  diffi- 
culties, —  that  of  finding  a  suitable  teacher,  of  irregular  attend- 
ance and  of  poor  facilities. 

The  sub-committee  say  that,  in  entering  upon  the  duty  of 
aiding  in  the  direction  of  this  school  for  the  summer  of  1882, 
the  first  concern  was  to  find  the  proper  teacher.  Learning  that 
Mr.  George  P.  Hildreth,  who  had  during  the  preceding  summer 
taken  charge  of  the  school  for  the  last  month,  and  had  sub- 
stantially secured  for  it  the  measure  of  success  it  had  gained, 
was  willing  again  to  take  the  place  of  instructor,  we  had  no 
hesitation  in  appointing  him.  It  is  only  just  to  Mr.  Hildreth 
to  say  that  whatever  of  success  we  are  able  to  report  is  due  to 
his  skill  as  a  mechanic  and  to  his  faithfulness  and  aptitude  as 
a  teacher. 


110  ,      MANUAL    TEAINING   AND 

But  the  circumstances  were  still  largely  adverse.  The  whole 
number  of  pupils  registered  was  63.  Of  these,  8  took  but  one 
lesson;  3,  two;  7,  three;  7,  four;  7,  five;  3,  six;  3,  seven; 
3,  eight;  1,  nine;  1,  thirteen;  2,  fifteen  ;  1,  sixteen;  2,  seven- 
teen; 1 ,  twenty-three  ;  2,  twenty-five  ;  1,  twenty-six  ;  2,  twenty- 
eight ;  1,  thirty-four;  2,  forty;  1,  forty-one;  2,  forty-four;  1, 
fifty;  and  1,  seventy-four  lessons.  It  thus  appears  that  only 
13  of  the  whole  number  of  pupils  took  twenty-five  lessons  and 
above,  42  took  less  than  ten  and  32  took  five  or  less. 

Some  of  the  ill  effects  of  this  irregular  attendance  are  obvious. 
First,  much  time  was  wasted  with  pupils  who  took  too  few  lessons 
to  profit  by  the  instruction  ;  second,  it  prevented  in  a  large  degree 
the  laying  down  and  following  a  progressive  series  of  lessons, 
thus  impairing  the  instruction  ;  and  third,  a  much  larger  number 
might  have  been  successfully  taught  if  the  attendance  had  been 
regular. 

The  school  was  divided  into  three  sections,  each  section  having 
a  two-hour  lesson  each  day  except  Saturday.  The  lessons  began 
at  eight  and  ten  a  m.  and  at  two  p.m. 

From  the  attention  we  were  able  to  give  during  the  progress 
of  the  school,  and  at  its  close,  we  felt  assured  of  its  substantial 
success  as  a  whole,  and  its  marked  success  in  special  cases. 

We  believed  the  town  would  gladly  furnish  the  small  sum  needed 
to  continue  this  vacation  school,  and  at  the  proper  time  would 
make  this  kind  of  instruction  a  part  of  the  required  work  in  such 
schools  of  the  town  as  needed  it.  If  this  instruction  could  be 
continued  during  the  whole  of  the  grammar-school  course  it 
would  give  a  large  number  of  boys  proficiency  in  hand-work, 
without  in  the  least  impairing  the  amount  and  quality  of  the 
usual  acquirements.  Not  more  than  two  short  lessons  per  week, 
continued  for  two  or  three  years,  in  a  few  well-arranged  courses 
of  hand-work,  would  produce  results  which  not  long  since  would 
have  been  thought  impossible. 

We  recommended  that  in  future  no  pupils  should  be  admitted  to 
the  vacation  school  whose  parents  did  not  apply  in  person  for  such 
admission,  and  promise  that,  if  admitted,  the  attendance  should  be 
regular. 

Notwithstanding  the  above  pledge  on  the  part  of  the  parents, 
and  in  addition  the  offer  of  six  prizes  varying  in  value  from  two 
to  three  dollars  each,  for  the  summer  school  of  1883,  the  whole 
number  of  applicants  admitted  was  only  36.  Of  these,  12  were 
dropped  for  irregular  attendance,  and  3  took  less  than  twenty-five 
lessons.  The  remaining  21  took  from  twenty-five  to  ninety-four 
lessons  each,  and  made,  upon  the  whole,  satisfactory  progress. 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  Ill 

We  quote  a  few  sentences  from  the  close  of  the  report  for  this 
year :  — 

While  a  larger  number  of  pupils  profited  by  the  school  than  in  the 
previous  year,  the  number  seeking  admission  did  not  come  up  to  our 
expectations. 

It  is  evident  that  instruction  in  a  vacation  school  can  never  take  the 
place  of  the  current  work  during  the  remainder  of  the  year  in  any  de- 
partment; and  the  most  we  have  hoped  to  do  is  to  demonstrate  the 
feasibility  and  value  of  hand  teaching,  in  order  that  at  the  proper  time 
the  town  might  be  ready  to  adopt  it  as  a  part  of  the  educational  training 
which  it  would  demand  of  all  pupils  needing  it,  either  as  a  means  or  as 
an  end. 

Special  mechanic  arts  schools,  or  manual  training  schools,  are  rapidly 
springing  up  in  many  of  the  larger  cities  in  all  parts  of  the  country ; 
and  we  earnestly  hope  that  Brookline  may  be  among  the  first,  if  not  the 
first,  of  towns  to  recognize  the  value  of  this  kind  of  teaching  by  requir- 
ing it  as  a  part  of  the  pupils'  fundamental  education. 

The  school  was  opened  again  on  July  8,  1884,  and  continued  ten 
weeks,  closing  September  13.  The  work  benches  were  shortened 
to  six  feet,  and  arranged  for  two  pupils  to  each.  Such  new  tools 
as  were  needed  were  bought,  and  everything  was  done  that  seemed 
necessary  to  secure  success,  with  proper  attendance  on  the  part  of 
the  pupils.  To  this  end  the  committee  offered  prizes  as  follows  : 
for  the  best  attendance,  three  dollars ;  for  the  second  best,  two 
dollars  ;  and  one  dollar  to  each  pupil  who  should  attend  forty  les- 
sons and  over. 

The  result  was  that  5  attended  fifty-nine  lessons  ;  2,  fifty-eight ; 
and  13,  forty  and  over.  During  the  session  22  other  pupils  at- 
tended, varying  from  three  to  thirty-nine  lessons.  The  age  of  the 
pupils  ranged  from  ten  to  fifteen  years. 

The  first  five  weeks  were  almost  entirely  devoted  to  teaching  the 
pupils  how  to  handle  the  tools,  and  during  this  preliminary  course 
the  stock  was  all  used  up,  except  samples  of  mortises  and  tenons. 
From  the  6th  to  the  19th  of  August,  besides  other  work,  the  jaws 
of  the  vises  were  made  and  fitted  for  the  screws,  and  also  ten 
bench-drawers  ;  from  the  19th  to  the  23d,  boxes  with  mitre  joints 
and  rabbets  for  bottom  ;  from  the  23d  to  the  30th,  halved-together 
joints,  and  mortise  and  tenon  joints;  to  September  3,  an  open 
dovetailed  joint  and  a  half-dovetailed  joint ;  from  the  3d  to  the 
5th,  a  section  of  a  door  with  double  mortise  and  tenon  and  groove 
for  panel;  from  September  6  to  8,  a  half -dovetailed  joint,  halved 
together  at  corner  ;  also,  sample  square  and  mitre  saw  cuts,  blocked 
and  unblocked.  The  last  week  was  spent  in  reviewing,  and  mak- 
ing a  large  box  with  half-blind  dovetailed  joints.    The  work  was 


112  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

left  so  that  all  parts  could  be  examined,  and  was  all  done  by  the 
pupils,  except  the  laying  out  for  some  of  the  joints.  The  quality 
and  not  the  quantity  of  the  work  was  kept  in  view  by  teacher  and 
pupils,  and  no  attempt  was  made  to  do  more  than  teach  the  sim- 
plest elements  and  manipulations. 

At  the  end  of  the  course  many  of  the  pupils  were  in  a  condition 
to  begin  to  apply  what  they  had  learned  to  more  difficult  forms, 
and  to  the  making  of  simple  but  useful  articles.  We  were  also  glad 
to  be  able  to  say  that,  in  addition  to  the  work  which  each  pupil 
had  to  show,  we  saw  a  marked  change  in  his  temper  and  spirit,  as 
well  as  interest,  —  so  marked  as  to  convince  us  that  this  was  by 
no  means  the  least  valuable  result  of  the  instruction. 

Until  the  time  should  come  to  introduce  this  instruction  in  our 
public-school  course,  we  recommended  that  the  vacation  school  be 
continued.  At  the  close  of  the  course  the  school  committee,  with 
others,  inspected  the  work,  and  were  satisfied,  upon  the  whole, 
with  the  results,  which  were  far  in  advance  of  those  of  previous 
years. 

The  school  opened  again  on  July  6,  1885,  and  continued  ten 
weeks.  Three  classes  of  14  each  were  formed,  varying  in  age 
from  nine  to  fourteen  years,  each  class  having  a  daily  lesson  of 
two  hours.  During  the  first  four  weeks  59  different  pupils  had 
been  in  the  school,  and  no  new  ones  were  afterwards  admitted. 
After  this  the  average  daily  attendance  for  a  time  was  12  in  each 
class,  and  then  fell  to  9  in  the  closing  weeks.  The  same  system 
was  followed,  and  the  moderate  attendance  secured  was  the  result 
of  the  prizes  offered,  as  in  the  previous  year ;  but  we  became  sat- 
isfied that  the  method  of  prizes  had  not  been  sufficiently  success- 
ful to  be  continued.  As  soon  as  the  pupil  found  that  he  had  lost 
the  prize  through  non-attendance,  he  lost  to  a  great  extent  all 
interest  in  his  work. 

We  carefully  watched  this  experiment,  and  felt  sure  that  enough 
had  been  done  to  warrant  the  conclusion  that  these  boys  ought  to 
have  at  least  two  lessons  of  this  kind  per  week  throughout  the 
school  year,  continued  as  long  as  they  remain  in  school.  We 
should  not  expect  much  success,  or  much  of  permanent  value, 
from  any  other  study  pursued  as  this  was.  We  were  also  satis- 
fied that  two  shop  lessons  per  week  would  not  interfere  with  the 
other  studies  of  the  school,  and  that  they  ought  to  be  given  just  as 
soon  as  the  proper  room  could  be  secured.  Manual  training  was 
a  part  of  the  current  instruction  in  between  forty  and  fifty  colleges 
and  other  schools  in  the  United  States,  and  it  seemed  certain  that 
in  one  form  or  another  this  training  would  gradually  work  its  way 
into  our  public  schools. 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION.  113 

Nothing,  in  our  opinion,  would  more  largely  promote  the  best 
interests  of  the  town  than  the  establishing  and  supporting  of  a 
fully  equipped  and  well-conducted  manual  training  school  for  boys 
of  the  proper  age  and  preparation ;  thus,  by  a  three  or  four  years' 
course  of  judiciously  combined  mental  and  manual  studies,  giving 
them  a  sound  and  broad  education,  which  should  both  develop 
special  aptitudes  and  point  the  way  to  a  probable  field  of  use- 
fulness. 

In  the  near  future  the  town  will  be  called  upon  to  provide  new 
and  enlarged  school  buildings,  and  this  subject,  in  this  connection, 
should  be  fully  and  carefully  considered. 

During  this  vacation  the  instruction  was  given  by  Mr.  S.  C. 
Griffin,  who  conducted  the  work  of  this  department  with  great 
success- till  his  resignation  in  the  spring  of  1891. 

In  the  vacation  school  for  the  summer  of  1886  the  methods 
employed  were  the  same  as  in  past  years,  and  by  some  of  the 
pupils  a  gratifying  proficiency  was  attained.  The  attendance  was 
encouraging,  and  at  the  close  of  the  term  a  public  exhibition  was 
given,  and  much  interest  was  shown  by  those  who  attended.  Some 
of  the  work  was  so  skilfully  done  as  to  surprise  those  who  were 
not  before  aware  of  what  has  been  accomplished  by  this  school. 

In  November  last  (1886),  at  a  meeting  of  the  school  committee 
and  the  advisory  board,  the  ladies  proposed  that  the  school  com- 
mittee should  authorize  the  establishment  of  a  cooking  school  for 
girls  in  the  upper  classes  of  the  grammar  schools,  the  instruction 
to  be  a  course  of  twelve  lessons,  under  the  supervision  of  the 
advisory  board.  Attendance  on  the  lessons  was  to  be  limited  to 
selected  pupils,  and  was  to  be  obligatory.  The  necessary  equip- 
ment was  furnished  by  private  subscription,  and  a  course  of  lessons 
was  begun.  The  plan  proposed  three  classes  of  six  each,  and  one 
lesson  a  week  for  twelve  weeks.  It  met  with  the  approval  of  the 
board,  and  was  carried  out  as  successfully  as  could  reasonably  be 
expected  with  the  means  at  hand. 

The  results  thus  far  accomplished  led  the  advisory  board  to 
recommend  a  vacation  school  for  girls,  and  their  suggestions,  con- 
tained in  a  paper  presented  to  the  board,  were  approved,  and  are 
as  follows  :  — 

The  ladies  of  the  advisory  board,  and  a  few  others,  desire  to  present 
to  the  attention  of  the  school  committee  the  importance  of  opening  a 
vacation  school  for  girls,  during  the  coming  summer,  to  supply  the 
same  want  which  has  already  been  met  for  the  boys.  They  would  sug- 
gest that  the  same  sum  appropriated  for  the  boys'  vacation  school  ($250) 
should  be  allowed  for  the  girls,  and  that  some  suitable  rooms  in  one  of 
the  school  buildings  should  be  assigned  for  the  purpose.     They  offer 


114  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

their  services  to  tlie  committee  in  arranging  and  supervising  such  a 
school,  and  would  hope  to  organize  classes  in  cooking  and  sewing. 

They  are  also  anxious  to  express  their  strong  interest  in  the  introduc- 
tion of  industrial  training  into  our  Brookline  schools,  and  to  present 
some  of  the  reasons  for  so  doing  that  seem  to  them  most  important  and 
convincing. 

The  first  establishment  of  our  public  schools  may  be  regarded  as  an 
act  of  self-defence  on  the  part  of  the  founders  of  our  republic.  It  was 
in  no  sense  an  act  of  philanthropy.  The  clearly  avowed  object  was  to 
produce  a  higher  and  better  citizenship,  a  more  intelligent  and  self- 
dependent  population.  Remembering  this,  it  becomes  evident  that  any 
modification  of  the  present  public  school  system  must  be  proved  to  be 
educational  in  the  broadest  sense.  We  are  at  the  bar  of  the  State  and 
the  tax  payer,  and  these  have  a  right  to  demand  that  we  give,  in  return 
for  their  investment,  the  thing  they  have  bargained  for,  namely,  that 
which  produces  a  population  better  fitted  to  support  and  govern  them- 
selves. Now,  this  is  precisely  what  we  claim  for  industrial  training,  as 
it  is  now  conducted  in  the  classes  to  which  some  of  the  children  from 
the  public  schools  in  Boston  are  sent.  Men  and  women  who  are  made 
capable  of  sound  reasoning,  observant,  cautious,  self-reliant,  are  likely  to 
be  good  citizens  themselves,  and  to  be  the  parents  of  good  citizens.  The 
lessons  in  making  a  loaf  of  bread  or  a  careful  mortise  are  also  better 
lessons  in  chemistry  and  physics  than  most  of  those  found  in  the  text 
books,  and,  as  now  taught,  are  object  lessons,  language  lessons,  draw- 
ing and  writing  lessons  as  well.  Children  who  are  not  easily  reached 
through  the  printed  page  are  often  aroused  to  intelligent  interest  in 
abstract  ideas  which  ai-e  conveyed  to  them  through  manual  training. 

For  these  reasons  we  hope  that  the  school-house  to  be  built  on  Boylston 
Street  will  be  so  planned  and  constructed  as  to  allow  rooms  for  indus- 
trial training,  and  that  the  town  will  make  a  sufficient  appropriation  for 
that  purpose. 

The  vacation  school  was  continued  in  the  summer  of  1887,  and 
the  results  were  in  all  respects  more  satisfactory  than  in  any 
previous  year ;  so  much  so  that  the  school  committee  and  the 
comparatively  large  number  who  visited  the  exhibition  in  the 
town  hall  believed  that  the  time  had  come  to  introduce  manual 
training  into  our  public  schools.  The  time  for  this  step  also 
seemed  opportune  in  view  of  the  fact  that  several  of  the  schools 
of  the  town  were  soon  to  be  transferred  to  new  and  more  com- 
modious buildings,  in  which  it  would  be  possible  to  conduct  the 
instruction  in  the  revised  courses  of  study. 

In  the  spring  of  1888  the  Ward  School  was  transferred  to  the 
new  Wm.  H.  Lincoln  building  on  Boylston  Street ;  but  the  new 
course  of  studies  did  not  go  into  operation  till  the  following  fall. 

The  vacation  school  of  1888  was  held  in  the  Wm.  H.  Lincoln 
building,  and  the  results  were  very  satisfactory. 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  115 

During  the  year  1888-89  a  new  sub-committee  on  industrial 
schools  had  been  formed  and  put  in  charge  of  this  department 
of  the  school  work,  and  it  now  only  remains  to  give  some  account 
of  this  new  department,  as  shown  in  the  reports  of  this  committee. 

In  spite  of  some  repetition,  it  may  be  well,  as  a  summary,  to 
include  the  greater  part  of  the  report  for  1888-89,  showing  what 
the  results  of  the  vacation  school  experiment  had  been,  and  the 
way  they  had  been  introduced  into  the  Wm.  H.  Lincoln  School. 

In  the  summer  of  1880,  in  deference  to  what  seemed  to  be  a 
growing  public  demand,  an  industrial  vacation  school  of  carpentry 
for  boys  was  established.  This  step  was  taken  as  an  experiment 
to  determine  whether  boys  of  the  grammar-school  age  have  the 
physical  and  mental  maturity  to  profit  by  such  a  course  of  instruc- 
tion. It  was  supposed  that  a  certain  amount  of  hand  skill  in  the 
use  of  tools  could  be  acquired,  but  to  what  extent  such  pupils 
could  be  made  to  grasp  the  principles  involved  in  mechanic  arts 
work,  and  to  comprehend  the  best  methods  to  be  followed  in  the 
solutions  of  simple  problems,  were  questions  to  be  answered  by 
the  results  of  the  experiment. 

The  two  most  serious  difficulties  encountered  at  the  outset 
were  :  to  secure  some  degree  of  regularity  of  attendance,  where 
none  was  obligatory,  and  the  pupils  preferred  the  freedom  of  the 
streets  and  the  fields  to  constraints  of  the  shop  ;  and  to  find  knowl- 
edge and  experience  in  teaching  combined  with  ability  to  interest 
and  control  the  pupils  under  such  unfavorable  conditions.  But 
these  obstacles  were  met,  and  to  a  considerable  degree  overcome. 
Not  only  the  members  of  the  school  committee,  but  others  who 
took  sufficient  interest  in  the  experiment  to  note  the  gain  from 
year  to  year,  became  convinced  that  the  teaching  of  hand-work 
as  a  laboratory  exercise  and  as  a  means  of  mental  development 
had  been  successful,  and  would  be  still  more  so  under  the  more 
favorable  conditions  of  being  adopted  by  the  public  school  and 
placed  among  its  requirements  as  a  subject  of  systematic  study 
and  discipline. 

In  the  mean  time,  classes  of  girls  from  the  grammar  schools 
had  been  taught  cooking,  leading  to  the  establishment  of  a  vaca- 
tion school  for  girls,  in  which  sewing  and  cooking  were  prominent 
subjects  of  study.  These  experiments  also  had  met  with  sufficient 
success  to  justify,  in  the  opinion  of  those  most  interested,  the 
introduction  of  these  subjects  into  the  required  course  of  grammar 
school  studies.  Finally  the  opportunity  came  in  the  erection  of 
the  Wm.  H.  Lincoln  grammar  school  building.  Besides  accom- 
modations for  eight  classes  of  pupils,  it  also  contained  basement 
rooms   suitable  for  carpentry  and  other  hand  studies  for  boys. 


116  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

while  rooms  well  adapted  for  cooking  and  sewing  were  found  on 
the  upper  floor. 

In  the  spring  of  1888,  when  the  pupils  of  the  Ward  School  were 
transferred  to  the  new  Lincoln  building,  the  committee  began  to 
consider  the  question  of  the  reorganization  of  the  course  of  study, 
to  take  effect  at  the  beginning  of  the  next  school  year.  After 
full  consideration,  it  was  decided  to  begin  by  giving  to  all  pupils 
of  twelve  years  of  age  and  over  (which  on  the  average  included 
the  upper  three  of  the  seven  classes  then  composing  the  school) 
six  hours  of  hand  studies  per  week,  and  to  the  remaining  classes 
four  hours  per  week,  out  of  the  required  twenty-five  hours  per 
week.  The  time  allotted  to  each  of  the  several  hand  studies  in- 
cluded in  the  course  was  as  follows  :  — 

Free-hand  drawing,  in  two  one-hour  lessons  per  week,  was  given 
to  all  the  pupils  of  the  school  (279). 

Carpentry,  in  two  two-hour  lessons  per  week  for  the  upper  three 
classes,  and  in  two  one-hour  lessons  per  week  for  the  remaining 
classes,  was  given  to  all  the  boys  of  the  school  (144). 

Sewing,  in  two  one-hour  lessons  per  week,  was  given  to  all  the 
girls  of  the  school  (135). 

Cooking,  in  one  two-hour  lesson  per  week,  was  given  to  all  the 
girls  in  the  upper  three  classes  (56). 

During  the  second  half  of  the  year,  which  began  February  1 1 , 
the  carpentry  lessons  of  the  first  class  were  reduced  to  one  hour 
each,  and  the  other  was  given  to  mechanical  drawing ;  and  a  por- 
tion of  the  time  which  the  girls  of  the  first  class  had  given  to  sew- 
ing was  devoted  to  cutting  and  fitting. 

The  shop  for  carpentry  was  fitted  with  twenty-four  benches  and 
sets  of  tools,  and  was  large  enough  to  include  all  the  boys  in  any 
class  of  the  school  in  a  single  section. 

The  room  for  cooking  was  fitted  for  fifteen  in  a  section,  but 
when  necessary  a  few  more  were  included.  The  room  for  sewing 
was  fitted  with  twenty-four  chairs  and  single  tables,  and  also  with 
larger  tables  for  cutting. 

The  aim  in  the  hand  studies  has  not  been  to  produce  the  largest 
manual  results,  but  to  determine  the  best  methods  for  making  this 
work  the  most  effective  as  an  intellectual  discipline.  It  is  pro- 
posed to  add  other  hand  studies  as  fast  as  the  best  interests  of  the 
school  shall  seem  to  require. 

It  may  be  well  briefly  to  consider  the  terms  industrial  education 
and  manual  training^  and  inquire  in  what  sense  they  should  be 
used  in  connection  with  the  hand  studies  in  the  Lincoln  School. 
Hand  studies  in  any  school,  or  in  any  course  of  study,  may  be 
considered  and  used  simply  as  an  educational  means,  or  largely  as 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION.  117 

an  educational  end.  If  considered  as  an  end,  then  the  school  be- 
comes a  special  school  with  a  special  mission,  having  in  view  the 
preparation  of  its  pupils,  through  the  skill  of  hand  acquired,  for 
immediate  entrance  upon  some  industrial  pursuit  in  which  hand 
training  finds  a  ready  application.  Such  a  school  has  a  purely 
industrial  end  in  view,  and  is  a  special  technical  school.  On  the 
other  hand,  hand  studies  may  be  given  very  little  practical  promi- 
nence, and  be  regarded  mainly  as  the  best  means  for  cultivating 
the  powers  of  observation,  invention  and  judgment,  and  used 
almost  entirely  as  an  educational  means.  It  is  in  this  sense  that 
these  studies  are  regarded  and  used  in  the  Lincoln  School. 

"We  do  not  know  what  the  future  has  in  store  for  our  children, 
nor  is  it  the  business  of  school  boards  and  teachers  to  inquire. 
The  only  question  is,  In  what  way,  and  by  what  means,  can  we 
best  develop  the  special  capacities  and  aptitudes  of  each  child, 
moral  and  intellectual,  so  that  it  shall  most  easily  find  its  proper 
sphere  in  life,  and  become  a  self-dependent  and  a  self-governed 
citizen  ?  It  is  in  this  spirit,  and  with  these  high  aims  in  view,  that 
we  are  striving  to  build  up  our  public  schools. 

The  work  outlined  in  the  i-eport  for  1888-89  for  the  Lincoln 
School  was  continued  to  the  end  of  the  year  without  change  of 
plan,  subjects  or  hours,  when  an  exhibition  was  held,  which  was 
largely  attended  by  Brookline  citizens  and  friends  of  the  school, 
as  well  as  by  many  from  the  adjoining  towns,  who  had  been 
attracted  by  reports  of  what  the  school  was  doing,  or  by  their 
interest  in  the  subject.  This  exhibition  of  the  work  of  the  school 
was  in  all  respects  successful,  and  seemed  to  leave  no  doubts  in 
the  minds  of  the  visitors  of  the  educational  value  of  this  work,  or 
of  the  importance  of  its  extension  and  full  development  along  the 
lines  so  successfully  followed  during  the  first  year.  All  the  courses 
in  free-hand  and  mechanical  drawing,  in  carpentry,  in  cooking  and 
in  sewing,  were  continued  and  improved  during  the  year  1889-90. 

The  boys  of  the  upper  three  classes  had  practically  finished  the 
course  in  carpentry  at  the  end  of  the  spring  term,  and  at  the 
opening  of  the  school  in  September  began  a  course  in  wood  carv- 
ing, with  a  corresponding  course  in  mechanical  drawing,  wliich 
continued  till  the  room  for  wood  turning  and  pattern  making  in 
the  annex  to  the  Wm.  H.  Lincoln  building  was  fitted  for  use. 

Soon  after  taking  possession  of  the  Lincoln  building  it  became 
apparent  that  no  great  development  of  these  hand  courses  could 
there  take  place  for  want  of  proper  space.  In  this  contingency 
the  conclusion  was  quickly  reached  that  a  new  building,  adapted 
to  the  extension  of  this  work,  and  connected  with  the  Lincoln 
building,  must  be  provided.     This  has  been  done,  and  the  courses 


118  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

in  carpentry,  in  wood  carving  and  in  mechanical  drawing  are  al- 
ready well  accommodated  on  the  upper  floor  of  the  new  annex. 
There  still  remained  on  this  floor  a  room  in  which  it  was  proposed 
to  place  sixteen  wood-turning  lathes,  sixteen  benches  adapted  to 
pattern  making,  a  grindstone,  one  circular  saw,  and  one  scroll 
saw.  On  the  lower  floor,  as  fast  as  the  needs  of  the  school  re- 
quired, it  was  proposed  to  provide  a  foundry,  a  forging  shop  and  a 
machine  tool  shop.  The  annex  would  then  contain  the  facilities 
for  instruction  in  all  the  fundamental  arts  in  wood  and  metal  con- 
structions. When  all  the  rooms  in  the  annex  are  fully  equipped, 
it  will  furnish  the  best  of  facilities  for  teaching  a  much  larger 
number  of  pupils  than  can  be  accommodated  in  the  Lincoln  School, 
and  it  is  hoped  that  a  manual  training  school*  of  an  advanced 
grade  may  be  established  on  the  lot  adjoining  the  annex,  lately 
purchased  by  the  town,  in  oi'der  that  the  educational  facilities  of 
the  new  annex  may  be  fully  utilized. 

The  manual  instruction  outlined  in  the  report  for  1889-90  was 
continued  during  the  year  1890-91  with  increasing  interest  and 
success.  A  most  important  step  was  the  addition  of  a  wood- 
turning  and  pattern  shop.  This  shop  is  furnished  with  sixteen 
lathes  and  pattern  benches,  so  arranged  that  the  pupil  turns 
from  one  to  the  other  without  leaving  his  place.  The  shop  also 
contains  one  circular  saw,  one  scroll  saw  and  one  grindstone, 
which  is  so  placed  that  it  can  be  used  readily  by  pupils  in  carpen- 
try. The  power  for  this  shop  is  furnished  by  a  Thomson-Houston 
fifteen  boi'se-power  electric  motor,  which  has  thus  far  given  great 
satisfaction. 

There  has  been  a  steady  improvement  in  the  amount  and  quality 
of  the  work  done  in  all  departments.  The  teachers  have  grown  in 
experience  and  skill,  and  the  pupils  have  shown  an  increasing 
interest  and  desire  to  succeed  and  merit  promotion. 

Increased  attention  has  been  given  in  the  teaching  to  the  methods 
and  details.  In  the  past  there  has  been  great  difliculty  in  so 
co-ordinating  the  drawing  and  shop  work  as  to  make  their  mutual 
relations  sufficiently  apparent,  particularly  to  the  younger  pupils. 
To  remedy  this  defect,  and  to  have  the  proper  drawing  always 
ready  for  use  in  the  shop,  all  the  drawings  of  the  shop  courses 
have  been  carefully  made,  and  blue  print  copies  taken,  and  these 
blue  prints  are  now  used  by  all  the  pupils  in  their  work.  Even 
the  youngest  pupil,  by  a  constant  comparison  of  his  work  with  the 
drawing  which  is  always  before  him,  learns  to  understand  and  use 


*  A  manual  training  school  building  is  now  (August,  1893)  in  course  of  erection 
on  the  lot  adjoining  the  annex  to  the  Wm.  H.  Lincoln  School. 


rt^DUSTEIAL    EDUCATION.  119 

it  loBg  before  he  is  old  enough  to  be  ]Dut  upon  a  course  of  mechan- 
ical drawing. 

It  is  also  becoming  more  apparent  that  the  simple  manipulations, 
or  work  of  the  hand,  constitute  but  a  small  part  of  the  educational 
value  of  industrial  work.  If  the  pupil  solves  a  problem  in 
arithmetic  by  rule,  no  matter  how  expert  he  may  be  in  the  numer- 
ical processes,  it  is  plain  that  the  great  value  of  the  study  as  an 
educational  factor  is  lost  unless  at  the  same  time  he  is  made  to  see 
the  reasons  and  proofs  upon  which  the  rule  is  based.  So  in 
mechanical  problems,  and,  indeed,  in  all  processes  in  which  the 
hand  is  an  instrument,  the  method  of  solution,  and  why  one  method 
is  better  than  another,  becomes  a  most  important  matter.  Nor  is 
this  all.  The  pupil  should  be  taught  to  judge  of  the  quality  of  his 
own  work,  as  of  that  of  others,  by  some  systematic  and  well- 
defined  method  of  inspection.  Of  the  three  steps, — the  method 
of  solution,  the  execution  of  the  method  and  the  estimate  of  the 
quality  of  the  work  done,  —  it  is  not  difficult  to  see  that  the  first 
and  third  are  too  important  to  be  overlooked  in  any  well-defined 
system  of  industrial  instruction. 

The  last  exhibition  of  work  in  all  departments  gave  great  satis- 
faction to  all  the  friends  of  the  school,  as  well  as  to  many  others 
who  were  drawn  to  the  exhibition  by  their  interest  in  this  new 
departure  of  grammar-school  work. 


120  MANUAL    TRAINESTG   AND 


Appeitdix    C. 


MAOTJAL  TRAINING  IN  THE  WILLIAM  H.  LINCOLN.  SCHOOL, 
BROOKLINE,  MASS. 

Remarks  by  Principal  D.  S.  FARNHAM. 


The  manual  training  element  in  our  school  is  the  outgrowth  of 
vacation  schools,  which  were  started  some  eight  years  ago.  The 
first  was  a  school  in  carpentry,  for  such  pupils  as  had  nothing 
special  with  which  to  employ  their  time  during  the  summer.  This 
school  was  supported  entirely  by  town  appropriation,  and  con- 
tinued through  the  summer  vacation,  taking  only  those  boys  whose 
parents  or  guardian  would  sign  an  agreement  that  the  boy  should 
attend  regularly,  unless  detained  by  reason  of  sickness.  The 
numbers,  I  think,  ranged  from  18  to  25.  Prizes  were  given  for 
excellent  work,  good  deportment  and  regular  attendance.  These 
boys  came  largely  from  my  district. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  school  year,  in  September,  the  various 
grades  of  work  done  by  this  vacation  school  were  on  exhibition 
at  the  town  hall,  and  the  town's  people  were  asked  to  visit  the 
exhibit,  and  inspect  the  work.  These  exhibitions  excited  much 
interest.  I  always  interested  myself,  at  the  opening  of  the  school 
year,  in  the  work  of  the  boys  during  their  vacation,  never  failing 
to  ask  each  one  what  he  had  learned  and  what  he  had  made  at  the 
carpentry  school.  Thus  this  work  went  on  till  we  felt  that  it  was 
almost  a  part  of  our  own  work. 

Some  six  years  ago  —  or  about  two  years  before  we  came  to  the 
new  building  —  the  benevolent  ladies  in  Brookline  started  a  cook- 
ing school  for  such  girls  as  could  attend  during  the  summer 
vacation.  The  work  was  successful,  and  at  the  opening  of  my 
school,  in  September,  these  good  ladies  proposed  that  the  girls  in 
my  seventh  and  eighth  grades  stay  away  from  my  school  one  day  in 
the  week  for  a  two-hours  lesson  in  cooking  in  this  private  cooking 
school,   carried  on  by  benevolence.     This  was  not  received  with 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  121 

favor  by  all  connected  with  public  instruction  in  Brookline.  It 
was  finally  referred  to  me,  and,  strange  to  say,  I  very  much 
favored  the  project,  saying  the  girls  would  get  more  good  from 
that  school  than  they  possibly  could  from  mine  in  the  same  time. 
Thus  did  the  cooking  school  become  virtually  a  part  of  my  school, 
although  I  was  never  inside  the  room  of  the  cooking  school.  At 
every  lesson  given  by  the  cooking  teacher  a  record  of  attendance 
was  kept,  as  well  as  of  conduct,  and  reported  to  me.  If  a  girl  were 
absent  or  tardy  at  the  cooking  lesson,  she  was  marked  on  my 
register  as  though  she  had  been  absent  or  tardy  in  my  room. 

Thus  these  two  outside  schools  went  on  —  the  carpentry  for 
some  four  years  and  the  cooking  about  two  years  —  before  our  new 
building  was  erected  ;  so  that  when  we  dedicated  it.  May,  1887,  we 
had  quite  a  little  manual  training  element  in  our  hands.  Sewing 
had  been  taught  in  some  of  the  grades  for  many  years  previous  to 
this.  In  September  following  our  dedication  of  the  Wm.  H. 
Lincoln  School,  rooms  were  fitted  up  for  carpentry,  cooking  and 
sewing,  a  permanent  teacher  being  employed  for  each  department. 
Mr.  S.  C.  Griffin,  the  teacher  of  the  vacation  carpentry  school 
from  1885,  was  employed  to  take  charge  of  the  shop  work,  and 
the  other  teachers  were  secured  for  the  cooking  and  sewing  de- 
partments. 

At  the  close  of  our  first  school  year,  with  this  manual  element 
introduced  as  a  part  of  our  regular  school  exercises  in  the  build- 
ing, we  held  an  exhibition  in  our  hall,  showing  specimens  of  every 
kind  of  work  done  in  our  building,  I  think,  except  reading.  This 
exhibition  attracted  very  much  attention,  not  only  in  Brookline 
but  in  surrounding  towns.  The  cooking  and  sewing  teachers  each 
had  a  good  room,  but  the  boys  had  nothing  but  the  basement  for 
a  shop.  The  boys'  work  was  greatly  commended,  and  our  worthy 
chairman,  Mr.  William  H,  Lincoln,  was  so  much  pleased  with  the 
quality  of  the  boys'  work  that  he  then  and  there  offered  to  give 
$3,000  towards  building  a  shop  to  be  annexed  to  my  building, 
provided  the  town  of  Brookline  would  appropriate  $3,000  more. 
A  town  meeting  was  at  once  called,  the  necessary  appropriation 
made,  and  when  I  i-eturned  in  September  the  building  was  nearly 
finished,  containing  six  nice  rooms.  In  this  building  we  have  a 
mechanical  drawing  room,  which  accommodates  twenty-four  boys  ; 
a  carpentry  shop,  with  twenty-six  benches  which  are  also  used  for 
wood  carving  ;  a  wood-turning  room,  with  sixteen  lathes  and  six- 
teen pattern-making  benches,  —  though  we  have  not  as  yet  done 
anything  at  pattern  making,  but  expect  to  do  something  this  term. 
In  the  lower  part  of  the  building  we  have  three  rooms  which  are 
intended  for  forging,  foundry  work  and  metal  turning.     The  shop 


122  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

work,  cooking,  sewing  and  free-hand  drawing  have  as  their  share 
of  the  school  term  six  hours  per  week.  The  above  subjects  are 
known  with  us  as  the  manual  training  department. 

In  our  sewing  room  a  girl  learns  to  do  all  kinds  of  sewing  which 
she  will  have  any  occasion  to  use  in  after  life  ;  and  we  feel  it  is 
being  taught  in  a  scientific  manner  by  Miss  Johnson.  For  in- 
stance, before  the  girl  sews  on  a  patch  or  makes  a  darn,  she  is 
required  to  make  a  drawing,  on  paper  or  the  black-board,  of 
what  is  to  be  done,  and,  after  the  needle-work  is  done,  to  write 
out  a  description  of  it.  All  girls  before  graduation  learn  to  cut 
and  fit  a  dress.  This  dress-fitting  is  done  in  the  ninth  year.  The 
room  seats  twenty-four  girls. 

In  our  cooking  room  the  girls  learn  to  compound  materials  for 
food,  but  this  is  only  a  part  of  the  work.  Our  teacher  in  this 
department,  Miss  Willey,  is  said  to  be  a  most  excellent  chemist, 
and  the  girls  have  the  chemical  analysis  of  food  plants,  eggs, 
beef,  milk,  etc.  This  kind  of  work  leads  a  grammar-school  girl 
to  take  quite  a  different  view  of  life  from  that  suggested  by  the 
old  method  of  school  work.  The  cooking  teacher  can  teach  from 
twenty  to  twenty-four  girls  at  a  time,  — though  this  is  rather  more 
than  is  profitable,  I  think.  We  have  gas  for  light  cooking,  and  a 
large  cook-stove  for  other  work.  Both  the  sewing  and  the  cook- 
ing rooms  are  on  the  third  floor,  and  were  fitted  up  for  these 
purposes  after  the  building  was  finished.  They  serve  a  very 
excellent  purpose. 

In  all  shop  work  there  is  a  carefully  planned  graded  system  of 
work.  All  work  to  be  done  in  wood  is  first  drawn  on  paper,  in 
the  mechanical  drawing  room,  and  then  blue-printed  by  the  boys. 
The  blue  print  is  before  the  boy  in  all  wood  work,  and  everything 
is  worked  to  a  scale,  which  greatly  "sharpens  the  wits"  of  the 
boy.  If  your  Commission  has  any  doubt  on  this  point,  come  and 
observe  when  a  convenient  opportunity  offers. 

I  am  a  firm  believer  in  educating  the  eye,  hand  and  mind  to- 
gether. I  have  in  past  years  myself  received  great  profit  from 
this  kind  of  education.  It  is  the  kind  I  want  my  own  boy  to  have. 
I  am  deeply  interested  in  the  poorest  boy  in  our  Commonwealth  ; 
whether  I  ever  see  him  or  not,  I  feel  for  his  highest  good.  When 
I  came  to  Brookline,  I  think  I  had  the  poorest  apology  for  a  school 
that  could  at  that  time  be  found  in  the  State  of  Massachusetts. 
It  was  known  all  about  this  part  of  the  land  as  being  the  "  tough- 
est school  to  be  found."  It  has  been  uplifted  by  these  various 
agencies,  till  to-day  I  am  proud  of  it,  and  I  know  of  no  school  in 
which  I  would  so  soon  have  my  child  as  in  this  Wm.  H.  Lincoln 
School. 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  123 

You  ask  me  whether  manual  training  has  done  all  this.  I  say 
no,  heart  training  has  gone  hand  in  hand  with  it ;  we  never 
separate  them. 

I  am  very  clear  in  my  convictions  that  the  various  agencies 
called  manual  training  have  opened  our  pupils'  eyes  and  minds 
as  no  other  kind  of  work  could,  and  my  teachers  feel  the  same 
way  in  this  matter.  When  a  girl  comprehends  the  chemical 
analysis  of  food,  and  learns  to  properly  compound  materials,  I 
feel  her  mental  activity  is  aroused  and  strengthened.  When  a 
boy  becomes  master  of  a  chisel  working  into  a  piece  of  wood 
which  is  revolving  three  hundred  times  a  minute,  and  cuts  that 
piece  of  wood  to  a  certain  scale-size,  we  feel  he  has  acquired  a 
power  which  will  hell?  him  everywhere  in  life.  The  same  is  true 
in  using  carving  and  all  other  kinds  of  tools.  The  teachers  in 
my  school  observe  the  great  value  of  this  work  as  an  educational 
power,  and  speak  of  it  to  me.  I  attribute  our  success  largely  to 
the  vacation  schools,  which  in  a  measure  prepared  the  way,  and 
the  fervent  interest  the  teachers  have  put  into  the  work  since  it 
came  to  my  building.  There  is  no  divided  opinion  about  this 
among  my  teachers.  We  also  unite  in  heartfelt  support  of  it,  and 
carrying  it  out  to  the  best  of  our  ability.  I  question  whether  all 
towns  and  cities  could  do  just  the  kind  of  work  that  we  are  doing 
with  a  miscellaneous  class  of  teachers  without  a  guiding  spirit. 

The  extra  cost  at  present  to  the  town  for  a  girl's  instruction  in 
cooking  is  $3.60  per  year;  for  the  sewing,  $3.46  ;  for  a  boy  in 
the  shop  and  all  that  pertains  to  it,  not  far  from  $6.00  a  year. 
The  upper  four  classes  of  girls  get  two  hours  a  week  in  the  cook- 
ing room  at  one  lesson  and  two  hours  a  week  in  the  sewing  room 
at  one  lesson.  The  girls  below  these  do  not  cook,  but  have  two 
lessons  of  one  hour  each  in  the  sewing  room  ;  while  the  boys  in 
these  upper  classes  get  two  lessons  of  one  hour  each  in  the  me- 
chanical drawing  room  and  two  lessons  of  one  hour  each  either  at 
wood  carving  or  wood  turning,  according  to  the  grade.  The  two 
higher  classes  take  wood  turning.  The  boys  in  the  lowest  grades 
have  two  lessons  of  one  hour  each  in  the  carpentry  shop. 

I  feel  that  our  pupils  do  not  suffer  any  great  loss  in  the  other 
subjects  by  taking  the  six  hours  for  these  subjects,  for,  now  that 
we  have  less  time,  we  have  to  apply  ourselves  more  closely  and 
surely  to  what  is  valuable  and  practical.  The  rubbish  has  been 
thrown  overboard,  and  all  my  teachers  rejoice  in  it. 

March,  1892. 


124  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 


Appendix    D. 


A  STATEMENT    CONCERNING    MANUAL    TRAINING  IN  THE 
SCHOOLS  OF  BROOKLINE. 

By  S.  T.  button,  Superintendent  of  Schools. 


To  the  Commission. 

I  understand  that  Professor  Runkle  has  given  you  full  infor- 
mation in  regard  to  the  plan  and  scope  of  manual  training  in  the 
Lincoln  School.  He  has  undoubtedly  explained  what  the  purpose 
of  the  school  committee  is  with  respect  to  extending  this  work 
gradually  to  the  other  grammar  schools  of  the  town,  and  has  told 
you  that  we  hope  at  no  distant  day  to  have  a  manual  training 
school  of  high-school  grade,  so  located  that  the  shops  in  the 
Lincoln  School  can  he  utilized  for  that  purpose.  I  need  not  en- 
large upon  the  points  which  he  has  covered.  I  will  make  some 
statement  concerning  the  relation  of  this  work  to  other  depart- 
ments of  teaching,  and  indicate  what  has  been  accomplished  in 
other  lines  of  concrete  instruction. 

During  the  past  two  years  kindergartens  have  been  introduced 
into  five  primary  schools,  so  that  there  are  now  seven  kinder- 
gartens in  the  town.  These  are  the  true  foundation,  not  only  of 
all  manual  training,  but  of  intellectual  training.  The  effect  upon 
the  children  of  kindergarten  instruction  as  they  pass  iuto  the 
higher  grades  is  very  noticeable  and  very  much  appreciated  by  our 
teachers.  Instruction  in  needle-work  is  now  begun  in  the  third 
year  and  carried  through  to  the  high  school.  Between  the  kinder- 
garten and  the  time  when  needle-work  begins  we  have  exercises  in 
clay  modelling,  building,  stick  laying,  cutting,  weaving,  etc.,  which 
seem  to  supply  sufficient  manual  training.  There  is  a  gap  in  the 
third  and  fourth  years  as  far  as  the  boys  are  concerned,  and  we 
are  now  considering  whether  the  .Swedish  sloyd  may  not  be  at- 
tempted to  fill  that  gup.  The  general  principle  upon  which  we  are 
working  is  that  manual  training  belongs  to  every  grade,  from  the 
kindergarten  through  the  high  school ;  and  we  are  not  in  sympathy 


IN^DUSTEIAL    EDUOATIOlSr.  125 

with  the  idea  that  the  manual  training  equipment  is  to  be  provided 
merely  for  pupils  of  high  grade. 

In  answer  to  your  question  whether  the  girls  could  not  have 
instruction  in  the  use  of  tools  as  well  as  in  sewing  and  cooking,  I 
will  say  that,  if  it  were  found  that  time  could  properly  be  spared 
for  such  exercises,  in  addition  to  those  in  sewing  and  cooking,  I 
should  lilve  to  give  all  the  girls  some  experience  in  the  shop.  This 
is  a  question  that  has  not  yet  been  considered  in  Brookline.  It 
has  been  thought  enough  thus  far  to  give  the  girls  their  own  in- 
struction in  sewing  and  cooking,  and  let  the  boys  have  the  tool 
work.  When  we  have  a  new  high-school  building,  as  we  hope  to 
have  within  a  few  years,  it  is  likely  that  in  connection  with  the 
laboratories  some  shop  work  will  be  provided. 

Kindred  to  manual  exercises  to  which  I  have  alluded  is  that 
instruction  which  brings  the  children  into  contact  with  nature  and 
the  forces  of  nature.  A  course  of  instruction  has  been  begun  dur- 
ing the  past  year  that  will  give  the  children  in  the  primary  and 
grammar  schools  a  general  view  of  the  facts  of  nature.  This  work 
is  pursued  entirely  by  obsen'ation  and  experiment.  Pupils  make 
drawings  and  write  descriptions  of  every  experiment.  This  form 
of  instruction,  in  connection  with  manual  training,  reveals  to 
the  teachers  the  value  of  concrete  ideas  as  means  of  stimulat- 
ing thought  and  expression.  The  tone  of  the  schools  is  greatly 
Improved. 

Educational  reform  to-day  consists  in  bringing  the  elements 
down  to  the  beginning  of  the  child's  school  life,  so  that  the  germs 
of  all  subjects  are  planted  in  his  early  school  experience  and  grow 
up  with  him.  The  old  idea  of  education  was  something  like  an 
inverted  cone  with  the  base  at  the  top  ;  the  modern  idea  is  to  turn 
over  this  cone  and  set  it  squarely  on  its  foundation,  so  that,  as  in 
the  kindergarten,  the  beginning  of  the  child's  education  may  be 
broad,  and  specialization  come  later  in  life. 
March,  1892. 


126  MANUAL    TKALNING   AND 


Appendix   E. 


MAMJAL    TRAINING   EsT   THE    STATE   NORMAL    SCHOOL   AT 
BRIDGEWATER. 

By  Principal   A.   G.  BOYDEN. 


State  Normal  School,  Bridgewater,  Mass.,  April,  1893. 
To  the  Commission  on  Manual  Traini7xg  and  Industrial  Education. 

In  answer  to  your  inquiry  concerning  the  course  in  manual 
training  in  this  school  and  the  benefits  derived  from  it,  I  would 
say  that  we  have  had  an  industrial  laboratory  for  wood-working 
in  operation  for  the  last  twelve  years.  All  our  students,  both 
men  and  women,  take  a  course  of  two  hours  a  week  for  the  term 
of  twenty  weeks,  with  the  privilege  of  such  additional  work  in  the 
laboratory  as  they  may  desire.  One  of  the  regular  instructors  of 
the  school  is  the  teacher  in  this  department. 

The  aim  and  quality  of  this  work  are  shown  in  the  outline  of 
the  course,  which  follows  :  — 

Wood -WORKING. 

Introduction. 

Manual  training  in  its  recent  and  technical  sense  is  strictly  educative 
in  its  aim.  It  is  thoughtful  use  of  the  hands  in  finding  the  qualities  of 
bodies,  in  manipulating  apparatus  in  the  study  of  the  physical  forces, 
and  in  the  expression  of  ideas  by  drawing  and  constructing. 

The  following  principles  determine  the  selection  and  arrangement  of 
this  course  in  wood-working :  — 

1.  The  workshop,  tools  and  work  should  be  such  as  to  impress  the 
pupil  with  the  meaning  and  value  of  skilled  manual  labor. 

2.  The  objects  constructed  should  be  of  practicab value,  and  be  the 
property  of  the  pupil. 

3.  The  objects  should  be  constructed  from  working  drawings  made 
by  the  pupil  from  the'  model  or  by  invention. 

4.  The  objects  should  be  typical  in  respect  to  material,  operations 
and  purpose,  and  should  be  graded  according  to  diflficulty  in  making 
them. 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION. 


127 


The  Materials  of  Construction. 
Wood. 

Structure.  —  Examine  the  squared  end  of  a  tree  stem  (oak) .  Observe 
the  position,  amount,  hardness,  color  and  other  prominent  qualities 
of  the  outer  and  imier  bark,  cambium,  sapwood,  heartwood  and  pith 
(medulla).  Draw  the  end  section.  Observe  the  annual  lines  and  rings 
and  the  medullary  rays.  Count  the  rings  to  find  the  age  of  tree.  Ob- 
serve the  cracks  in  the  ends  of  logs.  Break  a  small  ash  stick  and 
observe  the  splintery  fracture.     Of  what  is  wood  largely  composed  2 

Composition.  —  Heat  strongly  in  different  closed  tubes  (chemistry) 
portions  of  the  heartwood  and  sapwood  of  a  living  tree.  Observe  what 
collects  on  the  upper  part  of  the  tubes,  and  the  difference  in  amount. 
What  remains  in  the  tubes  ? 

Seasoning.  —  Observe  cracks  in  boards  and  in  ends  of  logs,  the  spaces 
between  boards  in  floor  or  sheathing.  What  difference  is  there  between 
side  spaces  and  end  spaces  ?  What  are  the  effects  of  seasoning  upon 
the  dimensions  of  lumber  ?  Observe  boards  that  have  curled  or  twisted 
in  drying.  "What  relation  do  you  find  between  the  kind  and  amount  of 
warping  and  the  part  of  the  log  from  which  the  board  came?  How 
straighten  a  warped  board  ?  Which  side  of  a  board  should  be  put  "  to 
the  weather  "  in  construction  ? 

Grain. —  (The  character  and  direction  of  the  fibres,  or  the  appear- 
ance of  a  finished  surface.)  Examine  straight-grained  and  cross-grained 
woods,  fine  and  coarse  grained  woods  (boxwood  and  oak),  even  and 
uneven  grained  woods  (pine  and  ash) . 

Examine  sections  (1)  parallel  to  the  medullary  rays  (edge  or  quarter 
grain),  (2)  tangential  to  the  amuial  rings  (side  grain),  (3)  perpendicu- 
lar to  the  fibres  (end  grain).  Explain  cutting  with  and  against  the 
grain.  Whatis  veneer?  silver  grain?  curly  grain?  bird's-eye  grain  ? 
What  causes  the  lines  between  the  annual  rings  ? 

Strength.  —  Illustration :  oak  bends  with  difficulty  and  is  stiff,  chest- 
nut is  flexible  and  elastic,  white-wood  is  very  brittle,  hickory  is  tough. 
Apply  these  terms  to  other  kinds  of  wood. 

Defects.  —  Examine  and  draw  5AaA;e,  loose  and  fast  knots,  decay,  wane. 
Describe  and  account  for  these  defects.  How  preserve  wood  from  decay? 

Measure  and  Value.  —  Find  the  number  of  board  feet  in  assigned 
pieces  of  lumber,  and  the  market  prices  of  the  common  useful  woods. 

Applications.  —  Examine  and  describe  the  common  useful  woods,  ac- 
cording to  the  following  plan :  — 


White  pine. 
Spruce, 
Hemlock,  . 
White  oak. 
Yellow  birch, 
Rock  maple, 
Bass  wood. 
White-wood, 
Hickory,    . 


Hardness. 


Weight. 


Grain. 


Strength.   Ease  of  Splitting.  Other  Qualities. 


128  MANUAL    TKAIN'ING   AND 


Fastenings. 

Nails.  —  Examine  czit,  wrought  and  wire  nails.  Observe  the  shape, 
parts  and  how  tlie  size  is  indicated,  and  the  difference  between  common 
and  finish  nails. 

Tacks.  —  Find  how  the  size  is  indicated. 

Screws.  —  Examine  romid-head  and  flat-head  screws,  blued  and  bright. 
Find  how  the  size  is  indicated. 

Make  a  collection  of  nails,  tacks  and  screws.  Arrange  them  in  an 
orderly  way  on  strips  of  board. 

Glue.  —  Learn  how  to  use  it.    What  is  sizing  ? 

Pins,  Wedges  and  Dowels.  —  Observe  the  shape  of  each. 

The  Tools,  and  how  to  use  Them. 

Keep  bench,  closets  and  tool  drawer  clean,  and  the  tools  in  their 
places  when  not  in  use.  Do  not  cut  the  bench  or  horses.  Do  not  allow 
edge  tools  to  be  dulled  by  striking  against  metallic  objects.  Use  the 
tools  only  for  the  purpose  for  which  they  were  intended.  Protect  pol- 
ished surfaces  of  steel  tools  from  moisture.  Oil  will  prevent  rust  if 
applied  occasionally.  If  a  tool  should  rust,  brighten  it  with  emery  cloth 
and  oil. 

The  Bench.  —  The  bench  should  be  of  a  convenient  height  (28"  for 
boys,  32"  for  adults) ,  should  be  rigid,  and  have  a  hard-wood  plank  top. 
The  top  should  be  perfectly  flat  and  smooth.  The  bench  vise  is  used 
for  holding  the  work  for  planing  or  boring ;  the  jaw  should  be  kej)t 
parallel  to  front  of  bench.  It  is  adjusted  by  the  screw  and  a  strip  of 
board  at  the  bottom.  Do  not  pinch  the  work  so  as  to  indent  it.  The 
horses  are  used  for  holding  large  pieces  of  board  while  being  sawed. 
They  should  be  20"  high.  One  or  two  hand  screws  for  clamping  pieces 
of  work  together  or  to  the  bench  will  be  found  useful. 

Measuring  and  Lining  Tools:  — 

Jlule.  —  Usually  made  of  boxwood,  brass  faced.  It  is  graduated  into 
inches  and  fractions  of  an  inch,  and  is  made  in  parts  which  fold  together. 
It  is  named  two-fold,  four-fold,  etc.,  according  to  the  number  of  joints. 
In  marking  off  lengths,  place  the  rule  with  its  edge  on  the  board. 
Why?  Mark  the  points  thus,  V,  —  the  vertex  of  the  angle  being  the 
desired  point.  It  can  be  used  in  lining  for  distances  six  inches  or  less ; 
for  greater  lengths,  use  a  ruler  or  straight-edge. 

Try-square.  —  Parts:  beam  or  handle  and  blade.  The  beam  is  often 
made  of  hard  wood,  brass  faced,  and  the  blade  should  be  of  the  best 
steel.  The  blade  is  graduated.  A  seven-inch  blade  is  a  convenient  size. 
In  using  the  try-square  to  erect  perpendiculars,  hold  the  beam  firmly 
against  the  straight  edge  of  board  and  draw  the  line  along  the  outside 
edge  of  the  blade.  When  near  the  end  of  a  board,  do  not  have  the  beam 
extending  beyond  the  end,  —  turn  it  around. 

Marking  Gauge.  —  Parts  :  beam,  head,  spur.  This  tool  is  used  to  draw 
lines  parallel  to  the  edges  of  a  board.  Set  the  head  at  the  desired  dis- 
tance from  the  spur.     Draw  it  along  the  working  edge,  pressing  against 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION.  129 

it  slightly,  and  tipping  the  beam  forward  in  the  direction  in  which  it  is 
moving,  so  that  the  spur  will  not  cut  too  deep. 

Dividers  or  Compasses.  —  Parts  :  two  legs,  arc,  set  screw,  thumb  nut. 
Used  in  scribing  and  in  laying  off  arcs  or  circles.  It  is  also  useful  in 
stepping  off  distances  on  a  line  and  in  transferring  measurements  from 
a  drawing  to  the  work.  Show  how  to  scribe  a  board  to  an  uneven 
surface,  and  a  chair,  with  legs  of  unequal  length,  to  the  floor. 

Ape?2crf  of  medium  hardness  is  indispensable  for  lining  on  wood. 

A  bevel  for  drawing  oblique  angles,  and  a  scriber  for  making  fine 
lines,  will  be  of  occasional  use. 

Saws  :  — 

Facts  common  to  all  hand  saws.  Parts :  handle,  blade,  teeth.  Size 
told  by  length  of  blade  in  inches  and  number  of  teeth  to  the  inch,  e.  g., 
"  7-te6th  "  or  "  7  pts."  means  that  there  are  seven  teeth  in  every  linear 
inch  of  blade.  The  back  of  saw  blade  is  thinner  than  the  teeth.  Why  ? 
The  teeth  are  set  by  bending  them  alternately  outward.    "Why  ? 

Cross-cut  saw,  twenty-inch  blade  and  ten  teeth  to  inch,  is  best  for 
ordinary  bench  work.  Examine  the  teeth  (draw  side  and  front  views), 
to  find  adaptation  to  use  in  sawing  boards  across  the  grain.  In  using 
this  saw,  hold  it  lightly  in  the  right  hand,  with  the  forefinger  extended 
along  the  outside.  Put  the  board  on  the  front  ends  of  two  horses,  the 
part  to  be  sawed  off  to  the  right,  and  the  line  to  be  sawed  very  near  the 
edge  of  horse.  Hold  the  board  firmly  in  place  with  left  hand  (and  left 
knee  if  necessary ) .  Begin  the  kerf  by  drawing  the  saw  backwards  with 
considerable  pressure.  Place  thumb  of  left  hand  against  the  blade  to 
steady  it  in  starting.  Proceed  with  the  sawing,  using  no  pressure,  with 
long  strokes.  Follow  the  line.  Test  perpendicularity  of  saw  blade  to 
board  until  practice  gives  a  correct  habit.  To  guide  the  saw,  watch 
closely  its  path  by  looking  vertically  down  upon  it.  If  the  saw  leave 
the  line  twist  the  blade  while  it  is  moving  in  the  kerf 

Rip  saw,  twenty-four-inch  blade,  six  teeth.  Examine  and  draw  the 
teeth,  —  side  and  end  views.  Compare  them  with  teeth  of  cross-cut  saw. 
Why  are  the  teeth  of  this  shape  for  sawing  along  the  grain?  Hold 
this  saw  and  the  board  as  above,  except  that  the  end  of  line  to  be  sawed 
should  be  to  the  left,  and  the  right  knee  is  used.  When  you  need  to  saw 
both  along  and  across  the  grain  on  the  same  piece  of  work,  always  use 
the  rip  saw  first. 

Back  saw,  twelve-inch  blade.  This  saw  is  used  for  light  work,  —  with 
the  bench  hook  for  cross-cut  sawing,  and  with  the  bench  vise  for  rip 
sawing  (dovetail  saw). 

One  or  two  compass  saws  should  be  provided  for  general  use.  They 
are  used  in  sawing  on  curved  lines. 

Cutting  Tools  :  — 

Firmer  Chisel.  —  A  paring  chisel.  Parts:  handle  (ferule  or  ring), 
blade,  —  shank  or  socket,  face,  bevel,  cutting  edge.  Draw  the  chisel, 
and  place  the  names  of  parts  on  the  drawing.  The  size  is  told  by  width 
of  blade  at  cutting  edge.    Each  pupil  should  have  a  three-eighth-inch 


130  MANUAL    TRATNINa  AND 

and  a  five-eighth-inch.  chisel,  and  an  assorted  set  should  be  provided  for 
general  use.  Show  how  to  use  the  chisel  in  scoring  and  paring,  cham- 
fering and  mortising. 

Jack  Plane.  —  Parts :  wedge  or  chip  ;  plane  iron,  —  cutting  iron,  cap 
or  break  iron,  connecting  screw  ;  stock,  —  toe,  heel,  sole,  throat,  mouth, 
bed,  handle  (lever  or  thumb  screw,  horn).  Learn  how  to  adjust  the 
plane  iron. 

To  use  the  jack  plane  :  Put  the  board  in  the  bench  vise,  the  part  to  be 
planed  parallel  to  top  of  bench  and  about  one-half  inch  above  it,  for 
planing  edges.  Put  the  board  on  top  of  bench  against  the  stop  for 
planing  broad  sides.  Stand  with  right  side  of  body  at  bench  behind 
rear  end  of  board  to  be  planed,  left  foot  advanced  in  a  bracing  attitude, 
and  so  that  the  body  may  move  freely  lengthwise  of  bench  ;  handle  of 
plane  in  right  hand  loosely,  with  forefinger  extended  to  the  plane  iron ; 
left  hand  on  the  toe  of  the  plane.  Place  sole  of  plane  on  the  board  with 
plane  iron  just  back  of  the  rear  end.  Press  down  hard  with  left  hand. 
Push  firmly  and  steadily  with  right.  Wlien  near  the  forward  end  let  go 
with  left  hand.  Always  keep  the  sole  parallel  to  the  surface  to  be 
formed.  Test  the  work  with  try-square  and  straight-edge.  Show  how 
to  make  a  chamfer  with  the  plane. 

A  smoothing  plajie,  a.  jointer  and  a  block  plane  should  be  provided  for 
occasional  use.  Planes  should  have  their  soles  oiled  frequently.  When 
not  in  use  always  keep  them  lying  on  their  side  or  else  raise  the  plane 
iron.     • 

Auger-bit.  —  Parts  :  spur,  two  nibs  or  cutters,  two  lips  or  knives,  twist, 
shank,  tang.  The  size  is  the  distance  between  extremities  of  nibs.  Each 
pupil  should  have  a  three-fourth-inch,  a  half-inch  and  a  quarter-inch  bit, 
and  a  complete  set  should  be  provided  for  general  use.  The  bit  is  held 
and  rotated  by  the  bit  stock  (or  bit  brace) ,  the  parts  of  which  are  the 
jaw  (or  socket),  shank,  handle  and  button.  Put  the  tang  of  bit  into  jaw 
of  bit  stock  and  tighten  the  thujnb  screw.  Put  the  work  in  the  bench  vise 
so  that  the  point  to  be  bored  is  at  a  convenient  height  above  top  of 
bench.  If  there  is  danger  of  splitting,  make  a  hole  with  the  brad  awl 
first.  Take  button  of  stock  in  left  hand,  handle  in  right.  Put  the  spur 
of  bit  upon  the  proper  point.  Test  perpendicularity  with  the  testing 
block.  Stand  upright  and  squarely  in  front  of  the  work.  Rotate  to  the 
right.  Bore  until  the  spur  shows  through,  then  turn  the  work  and  finish 
from  the  other  side. 

Jack-knife.  —  Strong,  one  blade.  Learn  how  to  hold  it  properly.  In 
cutting  do  not  have  the  free  hand  in  front  of  the  blade.  This  applies 
also  to  the  chisel. 

Miscellaneous  Tools  and  Appliances:  — 

Claio  Hammer.  —  Handle  ;  head,  —  face,  eye,  claw.  Hold  the  hammer 
loosely  in  right  hand  near  the  end  of  the  handle  Strike  square  blows. 
Place  the  nail  so  that  it  will  not  split  the  wood.  Learn  how  to  drive 
nails  vertically,  horizontally,  to  toe  nails,  to  blind  nails,  to  withdraw  nails. 

Nail  Set.  —  Used  for  setting  nails  below  the  surface.  Fill  the  hole 
with  putty. 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  131 

Screw  Driver.  — Handle,  ferule,  blade.  One  with  about  five-inch  blade 
and  a  small  one  with  two-inch  blade  will  do  for  all  ordinary  work. 

Oilstone.  —  The  best  comes  from  the  novaeulite  quarries,  Arkansas. 
Learn  how  to  sharpen  the  jack-knife,  chisel  and  plane  iron. 

Oil  Can.  —  Small,  brass.  Use  sperm  oil.  Wipe  the  oilstone  after 
using  it. 

Dust  Brush.  —  Use  it  at  the  close  of  each  exercise. 

Sand-paper  Block.  -^  Two  inches  by  three,  cork  glued  on  one  side.  In 
using  sand-paper  the  motion  should  be  along  the  grain,  to  avoid  scratch- 
ing. Use  whiting  with  the  sand-paper  when  you  wish  to  finish  in  the 
natural  grain.  The  sand-paper  should  not  be  made  to  do  the  work  of  the 
plane,  chisel  or  saw. 

The  following  should  be  provided  for  general  use :  pincers,  pliers,  snip 
shears,  mitre  boxes  with  back  saws,  anvil  vise,  chopping  block  and  hand 
axe,  cold  chisels,  framing  chisels  and  mallets,  brad  awls,  countersink 
bits,  half-round  files,  grindstone,  large  steel  square,  turning  lathe  with 
circular  saw  and  jig-saw  attachment,  sand-paper,  liquid  glue,  paint  and 
paint  brushes,  shellac  and  shellac  brushes,  stain  and  stain  brushes,  putty 
and  putty  knife. 

Construction. 
The  order  of  work  in  making  the  objects  is  as  follows  :  — 

1.  Study  of  the  model,  —  later,  the  invention  of  idea  of  thing  to  be 
made. 

2.  Accurate  working  drawing. 

3.  Study  of  the  materials  and  tools  to  be  used  in  reproducing  the 
object. 

4.  Construction  at  the  bench  from  the  drawing. 

/.  To  'make  a  Ruler.  —  Use  dressed  pine  |"  thick.  1.  Plane  one 
edge  of  board  straight  and  square  (working  face) .  2.  Mark  out  (rule 
and  try-square)  a  piece  26"  long  and  2|"  wide.  8.  Saw  the  piece  out, — 
lengthwise  first.  4.  Plane  the  sawed,  face  till  the  board  is  of  the  re- 
quired width  (2").  6.  Draw  a  straight  line  on  each  of  two  adjacent 
long  faces,  parallel  to  the  edge  and  ^\"  from  it.  6.  Chamfer  this  edge 
with  jack  plane  to  the  lines.  7.  Mark  and  saw  off  both  ends  with  back 
saw  so  that  the  ruler  will  be  24"  long.  8.  Sand-paper  the  ends  and  the 
wide  faces.  9.  Print  the  number  and  your  name  neatly  across  one  end, 
and  hand  in  for  inspection. 

II.  Block  for  Soils.  —  Use  dressed  hemlock  |"  thick.  1.  As  before. 
2.  Mark  and  saw  out  a  piece  12"  long,  3|"  wide.  3.  Plane  it  to  3|" 
wide.  4.  Draw  three  parallel  lines  lengthwise  on  the  heart  side,  —  one 
equally  distant  from  the  sides,  and  one  on  each  side  of  this,  one  inch 
between.  5.  Draw  ten  parallel  cross  lines  one  inch  apart,  beginning 
one  inch  from  one  end.  7.  At  the  intersections  bore  |"  holes  perpen- 
dicular to  surface.  6.  Plane  the  heart  side  a  little  to  remove  pencil 
marks.  7.  Saw  off  the  ends  so  that  the  board  will  be  lli"  long  (back 
saw).  8.  Chamfer  this  side  I"  with  plane  on  the  four  edges.  9.  Tack 
a  piece  of  card-board  over  the  reverse  side.  10.  Sand-paper,  number 
and  name. 


132  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

III.  Insect  Boards.  —  Use  |"  and  i"  western  pine.  1.  Mark  and  saw 
out  two  pieces  21"  long,  2|"  tapering  to  If"  wide  and  |"  thick ;  and 
one  piece  10"  long,  IJ"  wide  and  \"  thick.  2.  Plane  the  pieces  to  the 
required  widths.  3.  Place  the  two  large  jDieces  wide  ends  together,  |" 
between  them  ;  narrow  ends  \"  between.  4.  Saw  the  cleats  from  the  10" 
piece  (back  saw) ,  and  nail  them  across  the  wide  pieces  perpendicular 
to  the  axis  and  n\"  apart.  5.  Tack  sheet  cork  over  opening  between 
cleats  (2^-  oz.  tacks).  6.  Saw  off  the  ends  parallel  to  cleats  to  required 
length.  7.  Sand-paper  the  ends,  and  edges  of  top  and  cleats.  8.  Finish 
in  light-brown  paint.  Use  turpentine  to  dilute  the  paint  if  necessary. 
(Apply  two  coats  of  paint,  allowing  the  first  to  dry,  and  then  sand-paper- 
ing lightly  before  applying  the  second  coat.) 

IV.  Test-tube  Holder.  —  Use  |''  white-wood.  1.  Mark  and  saw  out 
a  piece  12"  long,  1  Jg"  wide  and  \"  thick.  2.  Plane  to  right  width.  3. 
Bore  the  hole,  allowing  for  one  inch  to  be  sawed  off  later.  4.  Saw 
lengthwise  through  the  hole.  5.  Saw  off  both  ends  with  back  saw.  6. 
Saw  half-way  through  at  end  of  middle  kerf.  7.  Chamfer  the  four 
corners  of  handle  with  firmer  chisel.  8.  Put  on  the  hinge  (narrow, 
wrought,  brass  butt).  9.  Finish  in  white  shellac.  (Apply  two  or  three 
coats,  allowing  each  to  dry  before  the  next  is  added  and  sand-papering 
lightly  before  each  coat  is  added.  Dilute  shellac  with  alcohol,  and  keep 
the  brushes  in  a  covered  cup  of  alcohol.) 

V.  Test-tube  Stand.  —  Use  \"  and  |"  western  pine.  1.  Mark  and 
saw  out  the  base,  10"  long,  2>l"  wide  and  \"  thick,  the  uprights  2\" 
long,  1\"  wide  and  f  thick,  the  top  9''  long,  1|"  wide  and  |"  thick, 

2.  Plane  and  chamfer  the   base  and  top  according  to  the  drawing, 

3.  Bore  the  top  and  base.  4.  Nail  the  base  to  the  uprights,  then  the 
top  (No.  18, 1\"  steel  wire  brads).  5.  Glue  in  the  pins  (meat  skewers). 
6.  Finish  in  cherry  stain.  (Thin  the  stain  with  turpentine.  One  coat 
is  enough.) 

VI.  Botany  Press.  —  Use  |"  eastern  pine.  1.  Saw  out  the  pieces  to 
the  required  sizes  at  once.  2.  Place  the  boards  together,  heart  sides  out, 
and  bore  the  holes  for  slots.  3.  Chamfer  the  heart  side  of  each  board 
with  chisel.  4.  Cut  out  the  slots  with  jack-knife  (make  an  opening 
with  saw  first).  6.  Bore  holes  in  cleats  and  fasten  them  to  boards, — 
hammer,  screw  driver,  14  1\"  round-head  screws.  6.  Get  wooden 
hand  screws,  remove  end  screw,  bevel  the  ends  to  correspond,  attach 
them  to  the  press.  7.  Finish  in  cherry  stain  and  shellac,  —  one  coat  of 
stain,  dry,  sand-paper,  two  coats  shellac. 

VII.  Box  for  Insect  Collections.  —  Use  \"  and  ^^g''  eastern  pine.  1. 
Saw  out  from  \"  stock  two  pieces  18"  long  and  2j'g"  wide,  two  pieces 
12  '  by  2=iig".     2.    Plane.     3.     Cut  grooves  for  cover  on  the  circular  saw. 

4.  Saw  off  ends  at  angle  of  45^  in  mitre  box  so  that  the  lengths  on 
inside  will  be  16^"  and  10^"  for  sides  and  ends  respectively.  5.  Glue 
and  nail  the  ends  and  sides  together  properly.  6.  Saw  out  the  bottom 
(^g"  stock),  and  nail  it  on.  7.  Finish  inside  with  white  paint  and  out- 
side with  brown  paint.  8.  Cut  circular  pieces  of  sheet  cork  and  glue 
them  into  the  bottom  in  straight  rows.  9.  Use  a  pane  of  glass,  10"  x 
16",  for  cover. 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  133 

VIII.  Mineral  Cabinet.  —  Use  |"  and  |"  white-wood.  1.  Saw  out 
the  sides  and  ends.  2.  Plane  them  to  the  right  widths.  3.  Saw  and 
plane  the  pieces  for  the  door.  4.  Rebate  the  frame  for  the  bottom  on 
circular  saw.  5.  Saw  grooves  in  door  for  glass.  6.  Mitre  the  frame 
and  door  together.  7.  Saw  out  the  bottom  and  nail  it  to  frame.  8. 
Saw  out  the  shelves  and  fasten  them  in  place.  9.  Put  hinges  and  hook 
on  the  door.     10.    Paint  inside  white  and  stain  the  outside. 

IX.  Specific  Or aviiy  Apparatus.  —  Use  |"  white-wood.  1.  Saw  out 
the  base  and  upright  and  plane  them  according  to  the  drawing.  2. 
Chamfer  the  heart  side  of  base  with  chisel.  3.  Bore  the  hole  near  one 
end  of  base,  and  fit  the  upright  to  it  by  means  of  a  dowel  joint.  4. 
Graduate  the  upright.  5.  Cut  off  a  piece  of  No.  12  brass  wire  11" 
long,  and  bend  it  properly.  6.  Fit  this  spring  to  top  of  upright  by 
means  of  brad  awl  and  wedge.  7.  Cut  out  two  pieces  of  sheet  lead  1^  ' 
sqiiare,  make  a  small  hole  in  each  comer  with  knife  or  brad  awl,  mould 
the  pans  on  the  block,  tie  in  the  strings,  drive  a  |"  flat  head  brad 
through  the  middle  of  one  pan  and  bend  it  for  a  hook.  8.  Adjust  the 
coiled  brass  spring.     9.     Finish  in  orange  shellac. 

X.  Parallel  Force  Apparatus.  —  Western  pine.  Follow  the  same 
order  as  in  the  last  model.  See  that  the  leads  are  exactly  of  the  same 
weight,  and  that  the  beam  balances  before  the  leads  are  attached. 

Additional  Apparatus,  such  as  butterfly  net,  shelves,  brackets,  physio- 
logical apparatus,  models  for  drawing,  may  be  made  as  time  permits. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  pupil  starts  with  a  distinct  idea  of 
something  which  he  needs  for  his  own  use,  and  is  stimulated  in  his 
work  by  the  desire  to  supply  this  need.  He  learns  the  nature  of 
the  materials  which  he  uses,  and  how  to  use  tools,  so  that  he  is 
able  to  go  on  and  make  for  himself  other  apparatus  as  he  may 
desire. 

The  benefits  of  this  training  are  noticeable  in  all  the  lines  of 
school  work.  Students  have  better  command  of  themselves  in  any 
work  which  requires  the  use  of  the  hands,  and  consequently  greater 
interest  in  their  work.  It  induces  accuracy  and  skill.  At  the 
start  the  pupil  often  thinks  that  an  eighth  of  an  inch  will  make  no 
difference  in  making  a  joint.  He  soon  finds  that  accurate  thinking 
and  careful  execution  are  indispensable  to  finished  work,  — that  he 
must  think  before  he  acts.  It  gives  the  pupil  the  consciousness  of 
power  to  help  himself  in  manual  operations.  It  stimulates  obser- 
vation of  manual  work,  of  drawing  and  architecture,  and  deepens 
the  pupil's  interest  in  these  things.  It  begets  respect  for  skilled 
manual  labor  and  sympathy  for  the  laborer. 

Eespectfully  submitted, 

ALBERT    G.    BOYDEN, 

'  Principal. 


134  MANUAL    TliAININ^G   ANT> 


Appei^dix    F. 


The  wood-working  now  experimentally  carried  on  in  the  gram- 
mar schools  of  Boston  is  represented  in  the  following  plates. 

Plates  I.,  II.,  III.  and  IV.  show  a  graded  course  in  wood-work 
from  the  Russian  shop  work,  prepared  by  Mr.  Frank  M.  Leavltt 
and  taught  by  him  in  the  Eliot  School  at  Jamaica  Plain.  The 
room  with  benches  and  tools  is  shown  in  Plate  V. 

Plates  VI.  and  VII.  show  Swedish  sloyd  for  grammar  schools, 
as  taught  by  Mr.  Gustaf  Larsson,  Appleton  Street  School,  Boston. 

Plates  VIII.,  IX.  and  X.  show  the  course  taught  by  Mr.  B.  F. 
Eddy  at  the  Industrial  School  in  North  Bennet  Street,  Boston. 
The  class  is  shown  at  work  in  Plate  XL,  at  drawing  in  Plate  XII., 
and  gathered  for  a  demonstration  in  Plate  XIII. 


Plate  T. 


a 

o 

c/5 

3: 

0) 

a: 
o 

CD 

c 
o 

> 
o 

5 

V4_ 

-<-' 

i  o 

-1 

4- 

(/) 

o 

CD 

o 

u 

CO 

LL. 

1 

z 

^ 

c 

Q- 

? 

o 
a 

T3 

O 

>- 

CD 

-a 
o 

E 

O 

Q 

r 

E 

0) 

Z 

O 
5 

£ 

-t-> 

o 

n> 

e 
2 

ue 

E 

ai 

o 

(D 

-4-» 

o 

a 

05 

CD 
CD 

< 

CD 

(I) 

UJ 

e 

>> 

0 

£_ 

03 

-v-J 

U) 

H 

^ 

o 

-n 

Z 

-+-' 

o 

)— 

t: 

ul 

r 

o 

> 

x: 

-n 

0) 

11 

m 

W 

c 

1  ) 

h- 

,/ 


— I 


/• 


Plate  II. 


Plate  III. 


*>i«»«rar»aa!o«ssMiaiM»'a!»"-»!ta 


»~                      * 

a> 

JC  ,                       i 

_+_!          ,                          1 

I4-      V 

■     o-    fe 

c/>     ^ 

e-  -s  2^ 

3          ro 

O-     5    ^ 

^CCo^ 

...  ^^  g 

^tiJco-:^ 

0  *—  5:  w 

^f^e: 

^CSi^i 

0   >«»*.-3:-c5 

•                          rd 

0)  E  g 

0  EZ 

S2:,i2    . 

0) 

X"^ 

F- 

'i 

Plate  IV. 


Plate  V. 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION". 


135 


^5 


•       •       •  m"° 

a     ■ 

, 

"ir- 

.-"h*  . 

.  '-<l^„l» 

'-i|'*„i»'^h*    H 

IH^                     r-th#                     rH^ 
«                          X                          ><( 

X 

THkC 

1  B 
(3  "' 

.Hicq 

r- 1      . 

(M    '^    "^ 

lO  mM"*!  CO 

X              X              >^ 

T— 1 

w  CO  "O 

wl*  '^  CO  HN 

C^              CO              »o 

'^ 

lO  CO 

(M  O  'Q 

CO  T-H  CO 

lO  'X)  --i  CO 

'^               "^               "^ 

rS 

^3 

nd 

'd 

rC           -C 

■d 

o            o            o 

O 

O 

o 

o 

O             O 

^ 

o           o           o 

O 

O 

o 

o 

o       o 

^ 

^       ^       ^ 

^ 

.    ^ 

^  . 

? 

^  c^  ^ 

<« 

i                o                03 

i 

bi 

©  .I?a5 

i  .  p 

©  b"©  t? 

-M 

n  -"^ 

-u  r^  ■ — 1 

■3 

5 

^     s     ^ 

S 
^ 

Whi 
Chei 
Map 

Whi 
Pine 
Chei 

Whi 
Chei 
Whi 
Chei 

to 

o 

..  "S 

© 

1    1 

t'  . 

p— (  '^ 

'o  S 

c  s 

<s  o 

wind' 
oard. 
der. 

'C't? 

1     1 

repari 

Nos.  1, 

uler. 
abel. 

-i-i 

bread  w 
,uarter-f 
riangle. 

ish-line 
utting  b 
am  win 

ase  Stan 
ey  boan 
racket, 
rame. 

P^         «         h:) 

w 

PhP^ 

HO-H 

p^q;>^ 

>ts^cqt^ 

6 

<<         ^         =^ 

M 

-^  o 

CO  t^  CO 

ci  o  -^ 

(M  CO  -Ttl  lO 

^z; 

l-H    t— 1 

1— (  rH  i-H  i-H 

>.  %^  « -s  ^• 

.tf 

© 

1 

cil,     tr 
splittii 
z  saw. 

p  1  a  n 
ne,  bem 
id-pape 

3 
© 

o 

ft 

CO 

© 

c3 

rad  awl. 
ammer,  nail  set. 
ompass  saw. 

Rule,     pen 
square, 
saw,  bad 

Smoothing 
block  i^la 
hook, san 

o 
CO  g5 

^« 

S   «: 
o  ^ 

CC 

bJD 

.5 

rH 

q5 
CO 

O 

u 

H 

M 

pqKO 

'^          2  -c 

_^ 

^ 

a       ^1 

■? 

2 
53 

OJ 

P-(                   CO 

•r'                CO   . 

be 

^ 

O  bJD 

_G 

-^:) 

i'     H 

5 

O 

«1    C 

©  s 

s 

O 

^ 

-a  y 

1 

ng  and  lini 
cut  sawing. 

with   and 
.     sand-pajD 

planing. 

bb 

.s 
s 

.    O 

ft'" 

ft  be 

11 

shave, 
ight  angles, 
[uarter  toil, 
ilaning  wit 

arcs. 

ng  with  spo' 

ymmetrical 

icvel. 
g  hooks. 

s  sawing. 

suri 

oss- 

ing 
ain, 
ock. 
que 

bjo 

^0 

o  be  bc^  "c 

.3    CO 

Filing  b 
Screwin 
Nailing. 
Compas 

c3  !h         a   -'  ■ — 1  —1 

•  1— «    >^ 

Jl,  s   C   o   o 

•r  'c  ^ 

0)    O          C3    bC.J2  2 

^        S        o 

o 

pp 

tn  ;:::  ;::^  ^  ^ 
ESS 

o  Ob 

^'  bJD       S  .i         fl 

o 

^ 

c" 
.2 

o  g    .2'=    .2 

■^ 

e,  pen 
draw: 

imens 
lines, 

imens 

o 

CO 

.  © 

to     O 
©    C3 

a3 
'be 

o 

CO          o3 

*-3 
ft 

1 

ce  with  rul 
square   in 
al  el  lines, 
g,  use  of  d 
extension 
isioning. 
lie  lines,  d 

'o 

C    ft 
•^   t/i 

©  be 

fl  c 
§.2 

^     CO 

e. 

er  foil. 

-angle  triar 

ound  curve 
le. 
centre   of 

311  radius. 

gon. 

•ant. 

.  drawing. 

ingfromdei 

Irac 
ircle 
sior 

O    0) 

©  3 

omp 
Hips 
ind 

^ITI 1 

P-(         O         O 

O 

PP 

mCp^ 

Opqfii 

PHO-ao 

136 


MANUAL   TRAEN^ING   AND 


ccff 

""H           MIX                .              r^ltl      . 

.2  "<" 

r-l 

;^ 

1— 1       .  T— (          ec*^        T— <  Mf«j< 

t^  "1"  XI         X         ><   ><! 

r-|00   '^    -HiO           Ml-*           0    '^1^ 

1  s 

t^ 

X 

lO  rH  lO           '—1           1—1  1—1 

><   X  1^         X         XX 

CM 

lO               'HlC^ 

^o                »o 

GO 

10    rHW-rf             — H              0   <N 

CO 

'"' 

1-1         C- 

1-H                            1— 1 

'"' 

1— 1  lO  1— 1         "—I          1— (  1— 1 

■c 

h' 

o 

T-    f- 

^ 

«  2   . 

o 

.   .  1^  0  J       .^ 

■s 

d 

d 

d       q3 

6                6 

CD 

<D    <D    <Z>           "           CD    0 

c 

C3        d 

a               fl 

fl 

see      «      c  S 

•rH 

.G  .rt  .r-(          0         .G    <D 

w 

d 

Ph 

'pH    S 

K           K 

K 

PL|PL,ft         pq         fLiOl 

to 

'H'3       ,    ^.« 

!S 

^1 

c3  0           ,:=        cD-:3 

-1^  -"^                ^rr           -y    ^ 

^     1 

.S 

o 

CO           O 

0              ^ 

0 

CO   CO     -         ;:;        '^   3 

000       "^       g^ 

ftftO         -^         ^    .^ 

«  ^ 

a5 

•^ 

j_i        T3 

rt                   ^ 

be 

.1           1      rG                -1^                             0 

—     o 

&X) 

« 

«        'o 

^                  fd 

.s 

«  a;  ^        -=        0  S 

■a   52 
o 

o 

1        -§ 

'0                  1^ 
0                   0 

^  ^  0     ;g      eg 

s 

Ph      Ph 

H              0 

Q 

faftifq     S     OS 

o 

tH 

(M 

CO          -^ 

10                         CO 

t^ 

CX)  0  0         1—1          CM  CO 

^ 

T-H           T-H           1— (  1— 1 

■d 

o 
o 

a; 

5> 

03 

0  0  tj 

c3    f^    w 

s 

0 
0 

d" 

CO                 CO                 ;.- 

'S      ^      ^  6 

'^         (»   .•   CO 

&i 

5    f    g 

^           ~    CD    C    t> 

F— T  CO 

0     CO 

2  ^ 

^         0   '-'   oi   -' 

M 

CA2 

s  s 

6              H 

0 

Woo 

o 

1 
CO 

p 

o 

c3      . 

bh       bo 

fl        bD 
ft      ^ 

^^^  be     bp^ 
§  s  ft      0  ^* 

-3  ^c-g 

■^  tC  -Q 
c:    r-    S 

.2-S  0 
"S  0  "S 

s  g.s 

ft  0  ^ 

•2i     1     d 

fe  bB   ^    -s 

^  •S  .S      0      0 

5    h 

c3 
O 

>  c  r  p:  -e  bc^  _•  S  M 

1 
1^ 

CZ2 

e"S    ^    CD 

ft  02  3  « 

o-Sjj^'^S     s^-^^S'^^o     ;3  ft.5  2 
^  i  Sjg  g-S-r-  i  bc^  o.s.S-s  bio  g^  ^ 
o&,ci^^mSp;;=!Q3^-3'^g.Soco^3 
Q            0        cc            !2;§ol^eao 

.    II 

, ^  ,    1    1    . 

0    CO 

J5 

.S    C    ^    0  'S    ^    ^ 

t,   -r-t               .rt     +J 

■«  ^  ji  c  ;>< 
.     c  P  0  aj 

.2     -t3   bDco" 

co"  ^ 

'g  fl  bb 

«5     0  rO 

o-K^  ft^ 

^ 

Plate  VI. 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION. 


137 


rtHc 

m 

to 

C^                    -          roi* 

^J] 

t-!°' 

S    ^ 

, 

rHr<J<                tr- 

CO 

•HKM 

.    H 

o   ^ 

rH|« 

X        X 

X 

M 

.aicoj^ 

a  — 

X 

r-lW          WN' 

1-l[Tt( 

mhc 

f^  rnhf 

3  S 

oq 

rH            rH 

^=0         10          j>^ 

(M 

CO 

CM  CO 

a  '^ 

!«1 

!^        ><! 

=2  ><    «  r^ 

1^ 

« 

«    >< 

1— 1 

CO         «5 

1-1       1-1 

OO  O        1-1        o 
1-1  i-(          rH          tH 

CO 
1-1 

O 
1—1 

CO  '-•Ico 
1-1  00 

■TJ 

■d 

O         n3 

§ 

O          O 

o 

q3 

6           <D 
'&I        'El 

^          1 

6  6      .-S       g 

a5 

a5 

rH     r-t 

c 

i=l 

e?       c3 

i3    a          r£5            ^ 

a 

fl 

5 

s 

^       g 

K 

E 

r^    r— t 

to 

CD 

CD 

OJ 

a 

cH-  a 

a.   3 

M    ;£] 

•a  ?: 
o 

o 

3 

o  g       o       q3 

-g 
g 

^ 

03 

1 

O  =M 

w 

pm     p^ 

HtH       pq       P-l 

a 

s 

OPh 

1^ 

-* 

»o       CO 

t^  CO           C5           O 

1— ( 

CM 

CO  -# 

12; 

r-l 

T-l               1—1 

1-1    T-l                1-1               C^ 

(M 

(M 

CM  (M 

'oj 

^        'M 

o 

m 

'a 

o 

CD 

u 

a 
'3 

0) 
o 

1  1 

bfl               2 
•■S  ^-          be 

&. 
o3 

3 

IB 

a; 

s 

■ft 

is 

cc   ^ 
o3     „ 

O    CD 

t> 

f^      O 

^              O 

zjm 

o 

'S 

id"     s 

.S  S  o 

0) 

bO 

be 

1 

> 

^          S'S 

T3 

c 

+3 

it 

CO 

siir  4 

o 

ID 

to      C 

a. 

S 
o 

r5              CD        ^ 

S   G  S   S         P 

^  S=S  «       bO 

tj           ,                     r-l 

o  -3  cs  a      ^ 

bO 

bX) 

p 

bJD 
bib 

a 

0^ 

o3 
a  r^ 

^ 

bi)^^Cbj>^ 

^  O  bJ3            fan 

.S 

a  8g 

O      fH      « 

be 

1 
02 

^      pq          PhO      Ph      O 

CD 
=4-1 

a 
6 

3      " 

:2  =f-i  ^ 

J 

t>       So 

CD  SrS  2 

6 

^ 

-fj  a;  02  s-" 

^ 

3 
P 

sill 

=3  -^ "  ^  1^ 

S   P^^^   Oh 

H 

138 


MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 


>o 

^                          '^'^ 

coC* 

w 

mht 

w:«X 

<                        <^' 

0 

0  -"■ 

01 

CO  l^ 

CM                H|«                X 

y. 

1  1 

to 

COlQO 

'^          y,         ^^ 

<^               CO               0 

CO 

H  1 

t> 

1—1 

■O  CO 

[>                              1— 1                              T— 1 

5  "" 

CO 

cS^ 

1      >^       ^ 

01                   OS                   CO 

B 

I— 1 

C5 

""^ 

rH                  T-l                  1— ( 

(M 

g 

O 

r3 

•^    t^ 

W 

§ 

N 

^ 

be 

V. 

h 

r^2 

0 

6 

In 

qJ 

2           2           0 1 

.S                          .3                          rJ5      P 

a3 

H 

i> 

fl 

.a 

fl 

c 

m 

S 

0 

s 

Pi                          P-^                          0 

K 

^1 

tf 

0 

^ 

~ 

•^ 

r^ 

If 

'0 
3 

03 
0 

02 

s  H 
»  ^ 

Ph  q:) 

0          be 

<D 

•C     +J 

02 

c 

0 

7^  i 

0 

0 

0 
0 

0 

0 

0   S 
0  '^ 

•;:          ?i          ^ 

'o 

d 

PR 

m 

ra 

t5         ft         H 

H 

>o 

CD 

t^ 

CO                 C75                  0 

I— 1 

|z; 

CM 

<N 

CM 

GVI                  CM                  CO 

CO 

^ 

,-r  1^- 

1j 

CD    0 

-M 

CC     '^ 

ci 

03 

a 

s  p 

?"' 

0  ^— ' 

0 

<B 

^  •>-* 

0 

Eh 

0 

bcS 

bJD 

-is 

a.^ 

c^' 

^ 

a 

bJD 

'^   »^ 

•rH      ^£ 

c 

CD 

(H      3 

f3 

'0  '^ 

^-1 

ft 

Ph 

hs 

f^ 

•5 

0 
> 

-c!          be        p-i. 

fl                 C                 03 

CD  ;i  ^ 
n3        cc 

V. 

% 

3 
0 

3               -S               -J= 

2         3          "" 

0 
^ 

be 

be 

;^  "■?  .a 

CS      to 

1— i 

'> 

•e    grooving,     h 
elling  with  plan( 

jointing,  use  of 
ne,  cleating. 

tailing  with    mi 
dng. 

-9  o-^ 

■J 
0) 

0 

0 

'bc'H 
0^ 

0 
be 

.s 

ving,  half- 
blind     m 
nt,  fitting 
ishing. 

0 

bJ3bJD 

C 

a; 

1.1 

g  bc-I'^ 
fee  G  g  ,^- 

•-3   g 

rH    m 

Squai 
bev 

Plain 
pla 

Dove 
lacl 

ffi 

> 

S 

V 

J 

« 

3  i 

g.2  0  P  S5C» 

<l 

•^ 

5  ^  CD  .j;  c  ji 

^ 

TO 

itterei 
)grap 
prqj 
spect 
teri 
ingb 

o 

0 

bCrH 

•r  P 

[4 

'A 

;=   y  0  ^  -t^^ 

1; 

t 

bC^ 

.2  oj 

'B  ■§  1  s  J  1  -S 

'-'     CJ 

0  s 

p^ 

Plate  VII. 


Plate  VIII. 


B.F.EDDY'S  SYSTEM. 
m  YEAR -SECOND  GRADE 


Plate  IX. 


B.F.EDDY'S  SYSTEh 
I    IHJRD  YEAR  -  FIRST  GRADE 

i^mk     mm       Im 


.U-.'>1 


Plate  X. 


Plate  XI. 


Plate  .XII. 


Plate  XIII. 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION.  139 


Appendix    G. 


A  COURSE  IN  MANUAL  TRAINING:  THE  WOOD-WORKING 
EXERCISES  CARRIED  ON  IN  THE  NORTH  BENNET  STREET 
INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOL,  WITH  FULL  SPECIFICATIONS  AND 
DIRECTIONS. 

Bt  B.  F.  eddy,  Teacher  of  AVood-woeking. 


The  system  of  elementary  and  progressive  wood-work  here  pre- 
sented is  the  result  of  nine  years  of  effort  to  meet  in  a  rational 
way  the  demand  for  manual  training.  It  is  elementary,  in  that  it 
begins  with  the  fundamental  process  of  getting  out  the  stock  from 
the  rough  material;  progressive,  in  pursuing  the  instruction  by 
what  seem  natural  and  necessary  steps  to  the  completion  of  the 
successive  models.  It  has  gradually  assumed  its  present  form  as 
the  result  of  actual  experience  in  teaching  wood-work  to  pupils 
from  the  upper  grades  of  the  Boston  grammar  schools.  It  is  by 
no  means  offered  as  a  finality,  since  the  experience  of  the  future, 
like  that  of  the  past,  will  doubtless  suggest  changes,  some  of 
which  will  be  adopted  as  improvements,  while  others  will,  after 
trial,  be  rejected  as  not  fulfilling  their  promise.  One  of  the  latest 
changes,  contemplated  for  several  years  but  delayed  perhaps  too 
long,  is  the  introduction  of  more  curved  work,  consistent  with  the 
system  with  which  it  is  embodied,  —  a  change  at  last  resolved 
upon  after  a  recent  careful  study  of  the  much-modified  sloyd 
models  used  by  a  leading  exponent  of  sloyd  in  this  country. 

Careful  preliminary  drawings  on  paper  form  an  essential  part  of 
the  system  herein  set  forth.  It  is  not  merely  theoretically  desir- 
able that  such  drawings  should  be  done.  Drawing  each  model, 
not  from  dictation  alone  but  from  scrutiny  of  the  model  itself, 
must  actually  precede  its  construction  in  wood,  in  order  that  the 
pupil  may  form  a  clear  idea,  a  well-digested  plan,  prior  to  any 
attempt  at  execution.  Some  one  has  well  said  in  substance  that 
careful  drawings  are,  to  those  who  are  familiar  with  their  mean- 


140  MANUAL   TRAINING   AND 

ing,  what  pictures  are  to  children,  showing  at  a  glance  what  it  is 
beyond  the  power  of  words  to  express. 

Careful  instruction  is  given  as  to  the  nature  of  the  different 
woods  used ;  the  selection  of  stock ;  the  construction,  correct  use 
and  care  of  tools.  It  appears  highly  desirable  that  pupils  should 
be  taught  to  sharpen  their  own  tools  ;  and  the  writer's  experience 
justifies  the  assertion,  hitherto  much  disputed,  that  by  means  of 
a  suitable  exercise  such  instruction  is  both  practicable  and  pro- 
ductive of  good  results.  The  constant  aim  is  to  reach  the  highest 
attainable  degree  of  thoroughness,  rather  than  to  execute  in  a  given 
time  a  stated  number  of  models. 

After  the  pupil  in  manual  training  has  been  led  to  grasp  the 
problem  before  him,  and  to  an  understanding  of  the  manipulation 
necessary  to  give  it  effect,  he  should,  after  completing  any  piece 
of  work,  be  trained  to  a  critical  estimate  of  his  results  ;  in  order, 
first,  to  develop  his  judgment,  and  second,  to  render  him  more 
painstaking  in  subsequent  endeavors.  For  this  purpose  a  plan 
has  been  devised  and  put  into  operation  whereby  each  pupil  tests 
and  marks  his  own  completed  models,  in  accordance  with  a  care- 
fully explained  scheme.  In  practice  pupils  show  a  tendency  to 
severity  of  criticism  toward  their  own  products.  The  experiment 
is  resulting  so  successfully  in  attaining  the  ends  sought  that  it  is 
likely  to  become  a  permanent  feature  of  this  system  of  instruction. 

If  but  one  two-hour  lesson  a  week  can  be  given,  the  completion 
of  the  models  here  offered  will  occupy  not  less  than  three  years. 
Supplementary  exercises  for  those  pupils  who  show  especial  apti- 
tude for  manual  work,  involving,  as  they  must,  principles  already 
taught,  are  suggested  as  a  means  of  keeping  the  members  of  a 
class  within  range  of  class  instruction. 


Models  for  First  Year  (Third  Grade*). 

MODEL  No.  I. 
Measuring  and  Lining  Exercise. 

Material,  |''   white-wood.      Sawing   dimensions,  prepared    for   pupil. 

Planing  dimensions,  14"  x  2"  x  |",  prepared  for  pupil. 
New  exercises :  — 

1)1  Drawing. — Measuring,  and   drawing  horizontal,   vertical   and 
diagonal  lines. 

In  Bench  Work.  —  Marking  with  gauge,  try  square  and  bevel. 

*  Tiy  "  third  grade"  the  writer  means  Class  III.  in  the  Boston  grammar  schools. 
It  is  the  seventh  year  of  school. 


Plate  VIII. 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  141 

New  tools :  — 

For  Drawing.  —  Thumb  tacks,  rule,  T  square,  90°  and  45°  triangles. 
For  Bench  Work.  —  Marking  gauge,  rule,  try  square  and  bevel. 

Order  of  Exercises. 

1.  On  the  entire  length  of  No.  1  surface,  with  the  rule  held  on  its  edge, 

mark  off  2''  measurements. 

2.  With  the  beam  of  the  try  square  pointing  to  the  left,  and  held  close 

to  No.  2  surface,  draw  lines  through  the  2"  measurements  across 
the  wood. 

3.  With  the  head  of  the  marking  gauge  *  held  close  to.  No.  2  surface, 

gauge  seven  lines  i"  apart  the  entire  length  of  No.  1  surface. 

4.  With  the  beam  of  the  bevel  pointing  to  the  left,  and  held  close  to 

No.  2  surface,  adjust  the  blade  to  an  angle  of  45°  and  bisect  the 
second,  fourth  and  sixth  squares. 
Analysis  for  marking  :  — 

Dimensions,  52  ;  gauging,  28  ;  angles,  20  ;  total,  100. 


MODEL  No.  2. 
Sawing  Exercises. 

Materials,  1"  pine  (rough).     Sawing  dimensions,  16"  x  6"  x  1". 

New  exercises :  — 

In  Bench  Work.  —  Gauging  line  with  pencil  and  rule;  rip  and 
cross-cut  sawing  to  lines  with  board  resting  horizontally  on 
trestles ;  testing  the  angle  of  the  cut  before  it  is  completed ; 
testing  the  angle  of  the  cut  after  it  is  completed ;  preventing 
the  uncut  portion  from  breaking  or  splintering  ;  rip  sawing  in 
gauge  line  with  piece  held  upright  in  the  vise. 

New  tools :  — 

For  Bench  Work.  —  Rip  or  splitting  saw,  cross-cut  saw,  trestles  and 
vise. 

Order  of  Exercises. 

1.  On  one  side  f  of  a  1"  rough  pine  board  mark  out  a  piece  16''  x  6", 

gauging  the  width  with  the  pencil  and  rule. 

2.  Saw  with  the  splitting  saw  just  outside  of  the  longer  line,  holding 

the  saw  vertically  when  finishing  the  cut. 

3.  Saw  with  the  cross-cut  saw  just  outside  of  the  end  line.     To  prevent 

breaking  or  splintering,  support  the  piece  when  the  cut  is  nearly 
finished. 

4.  Select  and  mark  the  straighter  edge. 

5.  Gauge  from  the  marked  edge  on  both  sides  2^". 

*  The  gauge  must  be  set  by  using  the  rule,  and  not  by  the  graduation  on  the 
gauge  itself. 

t  The  long,  wide  surfaces  are  the  sides,  the  long,  narrow  surfaces  are  the  edges, 
and  the  short,  narrow  surfaces  are  the  ends. 


142  MAN^uAL  teai:n^ing  and 

6.  Being  careful  to  keep  the  vise  post  parallel  with  the  bench  post, 

place  the  piece  vipright  in  the  vise  and  saw  in  the  lines,  revers- 
ing the  sides  of  the  piece  occasionally.  Lay  the  narrower  piece 
aside  for  model  No.  4. 

7.  Mark  the  straighter  edge  of  the  wider  piece.     On  one  side  from  one 

end  and  parallel  with  an  edge  make  four  dots,  the  first  \"  from 
the  end,  the  second  i"  from  the  first,  and  so  on  in  succession, 
guessing  at  the  distances. 

8.  With  the  beam  of  the  square  held  close  to  the  marked  edge,  draw 

lines  through  the  \"  measurements.     Saw  just  outside  of  the 
lines,  so  as  to  leave  the  lines  on  the  larger  piece,  testing  each 
time  Avith  the  try  square.     The  large  piece  is  set  aside  for  the 
chiselling  exercise  No.  10. 
Analysis  for  marking  :  — 

Dimensions,  40  ;  straight  edges,  30  ;  angles,  30  ;  total,  100. 

MODEL   No.   3. 

Sharpening  Exercise. 

Materia],  ^"  white  holly.     Planing  dimensions,  7"  x  2"  x  \",  prepared  for 

pupil. 
New  exercises :  — 

In  Bench  Work.  —  Sharpening  or  bevelling  with  sand-paper  block. 
New  tools :  — 

For  Bench  Work.  —  Sand-paper  block. 

Order  of  Exercises. 

1.  Measure  \"  from  one  end  on  one  of  the  wide  surfaces,  and  with  the 

try  square  and  pencil  draw  a  line  through  the  \"  measurement 
across  the  wood. 

2.  With  the  lined  end  resting  on  the  sand-paper  block  at  an  angle  of 

about  30"  from  the  horizontal,  move  the  wood  forward  and 
backward  until  a  bevel  is  formed,  changing  the  square,  blunt 
end  to  a  sharp  one. 

3.  Remove  the  square  corners  of  tlae  sharp  end  slightly. 
Analysis  for  marking  :  — 

Dimensions,  30  ;  bevel,  35  ;  corners,  20  ;  cleanliness,  15  ;   total,  100. 

MODEL  No.  4. 

Planing  Exercise. 

Material,  1"  pine.     Sawing  dimensions,  16"  x  2V'  x  1"  (sawed  in  No.  2). 

Planing  dimensions,  16'  x  2"  x  I". 
New  exercises :  — 

In  Bench  Work.  —  Planing  one  side  flat ;  testing  flat  surface  with 
winding  sticks  ;  using  reference  marks  ;  jointing  *  an  edge  ; 
planing  to  gauge  lines. 

*  An  edge  is  jointed  when  it  is  straight  lengthways  and  at  right  angles  with 
one  side. 


D^DUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  143 

New  tools :  — 

For  Bench  Work.  —  Jointer  plane,  straight  edge  and  winding  sticks. 

Order  of  Exercises. 

1.  Being  careful  to  plane  with  the  grain,  plane  one  side  flat ;   test  in 

three  ways  and  mark  the  side  No.  1. 

2.  Joint  one  edge  ;  test  and  mark  No.  2. 

3.  With  the  marking  gauge  set  at  2"  and  held  close  to  No.  2  surface, 

gauge  a  line  the  entire  length  on  both  sides ;   plane  the  unfin- 
ished edge  to  tlie  lines. 

4.  Gauge  from  No.  1  surface  on  both  edges  |",and  plane  the  unfinished 

side  to  the  lines.     Set  aside  for  models  No.  8  and  No.  13. 
Analysis  for  marking  :  — 

Dimensions,  48  ;  angles,  30  ;  finish,  22  ;  total,  100. 


MODEL  No.   5. 

Natl  Box  with  Square  Joints. 

Materials,  |"  pine  wood,  eight  1^"  finishing  nails,  ten  No.  16  1"  wire 
brads.     Sawing  dimensions,  two  pieces,  12J"  x  2^"  x  |"  ;  one  piece, 
7^"  X  5|"  X  1".     Planing  dimensions,  two  pieces,  7"  x  2"  x  |"  ;   two 
pieces,  3  J"  x  2"  x  |"  ;  one  piece,  7  Jg"  x  5  Jg"  x  Jg". 
New  exercises :  — 

In  Drawing.  —  Three  dimensions,  invisible,  connecting  and  dimen- 
sion lines,  and  arrow  heads. 
In  Bench   Work.  —  Back  sawing  square  ends;   using  bench  hook; 
block  planing ;    awl  boring ;    nailing  square  joints,   and   nail 
setting. 
New  tools :  — 

For  Bench  Work.  —  Back  saw,  bench  hook,  block  plane,  brad  awl, 
hammer,  nail  set,  smoothing  plane. 

Order  of  Exercises. 

1.  From  a  |"  board  saw  two  pieces  12 i"  x  2|'' ;  select  and  mark  one  flat 

side  of  each. 

2.  Joint  one  edge  of  each,  and  then  gauge  and  plane  both  pieces  2" 

wide. 

3.  From  a  |"  board  saw  one  piece  7|"  x5J". 

4.  Plane  one  side  flat;  joint  one  edge;  block  plane  one  end  square; 

gauge  and  plane  ^g"  thick. 

5.  On  one  side  of  each  of  the  frame  pieces,  about  i"  from  one  end, 

draw  a  pencil  line  squarely  across ;  carry  the  line  squarely 
across  the  nearer  edge,  rest  the  piece  on  the  bench  hook,  and 
saw  just  outside  of  the  lines  with  the  back  saw,  taking  great 
pains  to  saw  squarely. 

6.  If  necessary,  make  the  ends  square  with  the  block  plane,  holding 

the  piece  in  the  vise.  From  each  piece  make  two  pieces,  one 
7"  long,  the  other  3^''  long. 


144  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

7.  Clean  one  side  of  each  of  the  pieces  with  the  smoothing  plane  set 

very  fine. 

8.  Place  the  two  1"  pieces  on  the  bench  with  the  clean  side  down. 

Bore  two  holes  with  the  ^V '  brad  awl  about  ^'^g"  from  the  two 
ends  and  edges  half-way  through  and  start  the  nails. 

9.  Place  one  of  the  short  pieces  upright  in  the  vise,  and  nail  one  of  the 

long  pieces  to  it.    Do  the  same  with  the  other  two  pieces. 

10.  Nail  the  two  halves  together  on  the  bench. 

11.  Nail  the  bottom  board  on  so  that  the  comer  of  the  frame  will  fit  the 

square  comer  of  the  bottom  board,  and  saw  off  its  extra  length 
and  width. 

12.  Set  all  the  nails  below  the  surface  with  the  nail  set. 

13.  Finish  the  outside  of  the  box  with  smoothing  plane. 
Analysis  for  marking :  — 

Dimensions,  35  ;  nailing,  35  ;  angles,  15  ;  finish,  15  ;  total,  100. 


MODEL  No.  6. 
Dowel. 

Material,  |"  pine.     Sawing  dimensions,  15^"  x  |"  x  |".     Planing  dimen- 
sions, 15i"xi"xi". 

New  exercises :  — 

In  Bench  Work.  —  Gauging  line  with  pencil  and  fingers  ;  octagonal 
and  cylindrical  whittling  ;  filing  and  sand-papering. 

New  tools :  — 

For  Bench  Work.  —  Knife,  flat  file  and  sand-paper. 

Order  of  Exercises. 

1.  Prepare  a  piece,  15|"  x  \"  x|",  with  saws  and  plane. 

2.  Gauge  -^q"  with  fingers  and  pencil  the  entire  length  on  all  sides  from 

each  comer. 

3.  Remove  the  wood  from  the  corners  to  the  lines,  using  the  knife, 

making  the  stick  eight  sided. 

4.  Kemove  the  remaining  corners  with  the  file. 

5.  Smooth  with  No.  i  sand-paper,  twisting  the  stick ;  smooth  with  the 

grain  with  No.  0  sand-paper. 

6.  Set  aside  fpr  model  No.  14. 
Analysis  for  marking  :  — 

Dimensions,  40  ;  uniformity,  30  ;  finish,  30  ;  total,  100. 


MODEL  No.  7. 
Picture  Frame  with  Mitred  Joints. 

Material,  pine  wood  ;  four  No.  13  2"  wire  nails.  Sawing  dimensions, 
two  pieces,  20"x2'''x|".  Planing  dimensions,  two  pieces,  20" 
xirxl". 


INDUSTKIAL   EDUCATION.  145 

New  exercises :  — 

In  Bench   Work.  —  Back  sawing  mitred  comers ;   Wock  planing 
mitred  corners;  rabbet  planing;  gluing  and  nailing  mitred 
joints. 
New  tools :  — 

For  Bench  Work.  —  Rabbet  plane. 

Order  of  Exercises. 

1.  From  a  |"  pine  board  saw  two  pieces,  20''  x  2". 

2.  Plane  one  side  of  each  piece  flat,  and  mark  it  No.  1.    Joint  one  edge 

of  each  piece  and  mark  it  No.  2. 

3.  Gauge  and  plane  both  pieces  1\"  wide,  gauge  and  plane  both  pieces 

I"  thick. 

4.  On  No.  1  side  of  each  of  the  pieces,  about  i"  from  one  end,  with  the 

bevel  set  at  45^  and  held  close  to  No.  2  surface,  draw  a  pencil 
line  ;  carry  the  line  square  across  the  nearer  edge. 
5o    Place  the  piece  in  the  vise  with  the  marked  side  up,  and  start  the 
back  saw  just  outside  the  45"  line ;  finish  the  sawing  with  the 
piece  held  on  the  bench  hook. 

6.  Test  the  end  with  the  bevel  (making  sure  that  the  bevel  retains  its 

45°  angle)  and  try  square,  and  make  perfectly  true  with  the 
block  plane.  From  each  piece  make  two  pieces,  one  11"  long, 
the  other  9"  long,  cut  at  45°. 

7.  Set  the  rabbet  plane  so  as  to  cut  \"  wide  and  \"  deep,  and  remove 

the  comer  formed  by  the  inner  edge  and  back  side  of  each 
piece. 

8.  Place  the  pieces  in  position  on  the  bench,  and  number  the  joints  1,  2, 

3  and  4.  Glue  and  rub  together  Nos.  1  and  3.  After  the  glue 
has  become  set,  or  hardened,  strengthen  each  comer  with  a 
No.  13  2"  wire  nail,  starting  the  nail  about  1"  from  the  end  in 
the  longer  pieces  when  the  longer  way  of  the  frame  is  to  be 
placed  horizontally,  and  in  the  shorter  pieces  when  the  frame 
is  to  be  placed  the  other  way.  Glue  and  nail  the  remaining 
joints  in  the  same  manner,  being  careful  not  to  jam  the  sides  of 
the  frame  in  the  vise. 

9.  Set  all  of  the  nails  and  finish  the  frame  with  the  smoothing  plane 

and  No.  0  sand-paper,  being  careful  not  to  sand-paper  across 
the  grain. 

10.  Oil  the  frame  with  raw  linseed  oil ;  after  the  oil  has  dried,  rub  with 

a  dry  cloth. 
Analysis  for  marking :  — 

Dimensions,  48 ;   angles,  16 ;  joints,   12 ;   nailing,   12 ;   finish,  12 ; 
total,  100. 

MODEL  No.  8. 
Boring  Exercise. 

Material,  pine,  prepared  in  Nos.  2  and  4,  except  in  length.     Sawing 
dimensions,  9|"  x  2|"  x  1".     Planing  dimensions,  9"  x  2"  x  I". 


146  MA]SrUAL    TRAINING   AND 

New  exercises :  — 

In  Drawing.  —  Centring  and  drawing  circles. 

In  Bench  Work. — Perpendicular  boring  across  the  grain  entirely 
through ;    perpendicular  boring  across  the   grain  to  a  given 
depth. 
New  tools :  — 

For  Bench  Work.  —  Auger  bit  |",  wing  dividers. 

Order  of  Exercises. 

1.  Block  plane  one  end  of  model  No.  4  square. 

2.  Measure  9"  from  the  square  end,  and  saw  the  piece  off  just  outside 

of  the  line ;  plane  to  the  line.  Set  the  extra  piece  aside  for 
model  No.  13. 

3.  Lay  off  centres  for  holes  with  gauge  and  dividers,  and  prick  them. 

Accuracy  in  laying  out  the  centres  is  of  utmost  importance. 

4.  Place  the  piece  in  the  vise  horizontally,  with  the  upper  side  even 

with  the  top  of  the  vise,  and  start  the  spur  of  the  bit  at  the  first 
centre.     Bore  until  the  bit  will  stand  upright  alone. 
6.     Move  away  from  the  bit  a  few  feet,  and  see  if  it  stands  vertically. 
Bore  until  the  spur  protrudes  on  the  under  side.     Bore  the  three 
remaining  holes  in  the  same  mamier. 

6.  Complete  the  boring  entirely  through  by  turning  the  piece  in  the  vise. 

7.  Place  the  piece  in  the  vise  horizontally,  with  the  upper  edge  even 

with  the  top  of  the  vise ;  start  the  spur  of  the  bit  at  the  first 
centre  and  bore,  keeping  count  of  tlie  revolutions,  and  testing 
the  depth  of  the  hole  frequently  with  the  rule  until  a  depth  of 
11"  is  reached,  being  careful  to  use  no  downward  pressure  on 
the  bit.  Bore  the  three  remaining  holes  in  the  same  manner, 
using  the  same  number  of  revolutions. 

.8.     Clean  the  model  with  smoothing  plane. 

Analysis  for  marking  :  — 

Dimensions,  30  ;  boring,  32  ;  angles,  20  ;  finish,  18  ;  total,  100. 

MODEL   No.  9. 

Coat-hanger. 

Material,  |"  pine.     Sawing  dimensions,  16"  x  3"  x  I".    Planing  dimen- 
sions, 15^'  X  2%"*  X  I". 
New  exercises :  — 

In  Drawing.  —  Plotting  free-hand  curves,  and  showing  complete 

section. 
In  Bench  Work.  —  U.sing  turning  saw,  spoke  shave,  cabinet  scraper ; 
making  concaved  edge  square  with  side  ;  making  convexed  edge 
curved. 
New  tools :  — 

Bench  Work.  —  Turning  saw,  spoke  shave,  cabinet  scraper,  \"  auger 
bit. 

*  One  edge  jointed. 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  147 


Order  of  Exercises. 

1.  From  a  I"  pine  board  saw  a  piece  16"  x  3". 

2.  Make  one  side  flat,  joint  one  edge,  block  plane  the  ends  and  make 

the  piece  |"  thick. 

3.  Plot  the  curve  on  the  first  side  (see  drawing)  ;  bore  the  hole,  being 

careful  not  to  bore  entirely  through  without  turning  the  piece 
in  the  vise. 

4.  Place  the  piece  in  the  vise  and  saw  with  the  turning  saw  about  I" 

outside  the  lines,  standing  directly  in  front  of  the  piece  ;  point 
the  saw  straight  ahead,  avoid  twisting  the  saw,  and  saw  with 
the  grain,  so  as  to  leave  the  smooth  side  of  the  kerf  on  the 
model. 

5.  Spoke  shave  and  file  to  the  lines,  keeping  the  edges  square. 

6o     Gauge  with  the  finger  nail  and  pencil  I"  from  the  top  edge  on  both 
sides. 

7.  Form  the  curve  on  the  top  edge  with  the  spoke  shave,  file  and 

cabinet  scraper. 

8.  Clean  both  sides  with  the  smoothing  plane,  and  finish  with  No.  0 

sand-paper. 
Analysis  for  marking  :  — 

Dimensions,  40  ;  curves,  30  ;  boring,  12  ;  finish,  18  ;  total,  100. 

MODEL  No.  10. 
Chiselling  Exercise. 

Material,  pine.      Sawing  dimensions,   14"x3i"xl".      (From   No.   2.) 

Planing  dimensions,  13"  x  3"  x  |". 
New  exercises :  — 

In  Bench  Work.  —  Lining  with  knife  point ;  vertical  chiselling  across 
the  grain ;  chiselling  out  grooves  Avith  open  ends  of  uniform 
width  and  depth,  at  90"  and  45°  angles. 
New  tools :  — 

For  Bench  Work.  —  1|"   socket  firmer  chisel ;    |"   socket  firmer 
chisel ;  hand  screw,  mallet. 

Order  of  Exercises. 

1.  Prepare  a  piece,  13"  x  3"  x  |",  with  ends  planed  square. 

2.  Draw  the  construction  on  the  first  side  ;  place  the  rule  on  its  edge, 

and  measure  very  carefully,  using  the  knife  point  in  marking  the 
lines. 

3.  Saw  with  the  back  saw  just  inside  of  the  \"  spaces,  not  quite  f"  deep. 

4.  Secure  the  piece  to  the  bench  with  a  hand  screw,  keeping  the  jaws 

of  the  hand  screw  parallel.  Remove  the  wood  between  the  saw 
kerfs  with  the  1\"  chisel,  held  on  a  slant  with  the  bevel  side 
down. 

5.  With  the  wide  chisel  held  vertically  and  the  bevel  side  held  toward 

the  wood  to  be  removed,  cut  the  walls  |"  deep. 


148  MANUAL   TRAINING   AND 

6.  Place  the  piece  in  the  vise  with  one  edge  up,  the  bottom  toward  you. 

Pare  down  to  the  |"  line  with  the  |"  chisel  half  way  through. 
Reverse  the  piece  in  the  vise,  and  finish  in  the  same  manner, 
being  careful  to  make  the  bottom  of  the  grooves  flat. 

7.  Clean  with  the  jointer  plane  set  very  fine. 
Analysis  for  marking  :  — 

Dimensions,  45  ;  angles,  20  ;  uniformity,  18  ;  finish,  17  ;  total,  100. 

MODEL  No.   11. 
Blind  Dowel  Joint  at  Cornek. 

Material,  1"  pine  and  i"  black  walnut.  Sawing  dimensions,  one  piece, 
8^"  X  3^"  X  1"  ;  one  piece,  3"  x  -|"  x  I".  Planing  dimensions,  two 
pieces,  4"  x  3"  x  |"  ;  one  piece,  3"  x  |"  x  |". 

New  exercises :  — 

In  Bench  Work.  — Making  rabbet. 

Order  of  Exercises. 

1.  Prepare  two  pieces,  4"  x  3"  x  |''. 

2.  From  the  end  on  the  marked  side  of  one  of  the  pieces  measure  the 

thickness  of  the  other,  and  square  a  line  across  the  side  and 
from  the  ends  of  this  line  |"  on  each  edge. 

3.  From  the  marked  side  gauge  |"  from  the  squared  line  on  one  edge 

around  the  nearer  end  to  the  squared  line  on  the  other. 

4.  Rough  out  the  rabbet  with  the  back  saw. 

5.  In  finishing  with  the  chisel  place  the  piece  in  the  vise  with  the  edge 

up,  and  cut  in  the  edge  lines  about  |"  deep  ;  place  the  piece  flat 
on  the  bench  with  the  marked  side  up,  and  finish  cutting  the 
end.  With  the  piece  held  upright  in  the  vise,  finish  the  length 
of  the  rabbet. 

6.  From  the  marked  side  gauge  |"  across  the  end  of  the  rabbet.     From 

the  end  of  the  other  piece  gauge  |"  across  the  marked  side. 

7.  From  the  marked  edge  of  each  piece  on  the  gauged  lines  lay  off 

with  the  gauge  f,  fi",  2|". 

8.  At  the  six  intersections  of  the  gauged  lines  as  centres  bore  f"  holes 

Tg"  deep- 

9.  Make  the  |"  dowel  same  as  in  model  No.  6,  and  cut  from  it  three 

pieces  |''  long. 

10.  Glue  the  dowels  in  the  holes  in  the  end  of  the  rabbet. 

11.  Clean  the  model  with  the  smoothing  plane. 
Analysis  for  marking :  — 

Dimensions,  40  ;  boring,  18  ;  joint,  18  ;  finish,  24  ;  total,  100. 

MODEL  No.  12. 

Sand-paper  Block. 

Material,  |"  pine  wood,  \  sheet  of  sand-paper.  Sawing  dimensions, 
block,  5"  X  2^"  X  I"  ;  key,  5"  x  |"  x  I".  Planing  dimensions,  block, 
4:1"  X  2"  X  f"  ;  key,  4=1"  x  |"  x  |". 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION.  149 

New  exercises :  — 

In  Bench  Work.  —  Horizontal  chiselling  lengthways  of  the  grain ; 
fitting  key  to  groove  ;  chiselling  square  ends  of  key. 
New  tools :  — 

For  Bench  Work.  —  |"  socket  primer  chisel. 

Order  of  Exercises. 

1.  Prepare  a  piece,  4i"  x  2"  x  |",  with  ends  block  planed. 

2.  Gauge  the  construction  lines. 

3.  Place  the  piece  in  the  vise  with  the  gauged  side  up,  and  saw  with 

the  back  saw  just  inside  of  the  groove  lines  not  quite  f  deep. 

4.  Score  out  the  groove  between  the  kerfs  not  quite  to  the  bottom  line. 

Finish  the  groove  with  the  1^"  and  |"  chisels,  cutting  the  side 
walls  with  the  wider  chisel  held  vertically,  drawing  the  chisel 
sideways  as  well  as  pressing  down. 
6.    Prepare  a  piece,  5"  x  |"  x  |",  with  sawed  ends. 

6.  At  about  ^y  from  the  end  of  the  piece  square  a  line  on  the  sides  and 

edges  with  a  knife.  With  the  bevel  side  of  the  wide  chisel 
turned  toward  the  end  to  be  removed,  the  cutting  edge  of  the 
chisel  placed  in  the  squared  line,  and  the  chisel  held  upright, 
cut  down  about  |"  on  the  sides  and  edges.  Repeat  the  process 
until  the  chisel  cuts  off  all  the  wood  to  the  centre  of  the  end. 
Measure  from  the  square  end  4V',  square  a  line  aromid,  saw 
just  outside  of  the  line,  and  chisel  as  before. 

7.  Fold  I  sheet  of  sand-paper  around  the  block,  and  secure  it  in  place 

with  the  key. 
Analysis  for  marking :  — 

Dimensions,  36  ;  groove,  30  ;  angles,  24 ;  finish,  10  ;  total,  100. 


MODEL   No.    13. 

Thumb  Tack  Holder  and  Pencil  Pointer. 

Material,  pine  wood,  prepared  except  in  length  in  Nos.  2  and  4,  No.  0 
sand-paper.  Sawing  dimensions,  6J"  x  2"  x  |".  Planing  dimen- 
sions, 6|'x2"x|". 

New  exercises :  — 

In  Bench  Work.  —  Chiselling  curved   end ;    chamfering ;    quarter 
fluting  ;  and  gluing  sand-paper. 

New  tools :  — 

For  Bench  Work.  —  Gouge. 

Order  of  Exercises. 

1.  Block  plane  one  end  of  piece  left  from  model  No.  8. 

2.  Measure  5"  from  the  square  end,  and  square  a  line  around  the  piece  ; 

find  the  centre  of  the  lines  on  both  sides. 

3.  Draw  the  curved  construction  lines  with  the  dividers  and  the  straight 

lines  with  the  gauge. 

4.  Bore  the  hole. 


150  MAI!^UAL    TRAINING   AND 

5.  With  the  piece  held  in  the  vise,  chamfer  the  two  ends  and  then  the 

edges  on  one  side. 

6.  Remove  the  corners  from  the  other  side  with  the  gouge. 

7.  Cut  and  glue  on  the  piece  of  No.  0  sand-paper. 
Analysis  for  marking  :  — 

Dimensions,  45  ;  curves,  15  ;  chamfering,  12  ;  fluting,  12  ;  finish,  16  ; 
total,  100. 

MODEL  No.    14. 

Flower  Trellis. 

Material,  |"  pine  wood,  dowel  from  No.  6  ;  fifteen  No.  19  |"  wire  brads. 
Sawing  dimensions,  20i"  x  1|"  x  |".     Planing  dimensions,  20"  x  li" 

X  4     . 

New  exercises :  — 

In  Drawing.  —  Arrows  showing  dimensions  which  extend  outside 

of  material  used,  broken  drawing. 
In  Bench  Work.  —  Spreading  and  bending  slats  ;  oblique  chiselling 
and  planing. 

Order  of  Exercises. 

1.  Prepare  a  piece,  20"  x  1\"  x  |". 

2.  Lay  off  centres  for  holes  on  both  edges  with  the  try  square  and  gauge. 

3.  Place  the  piece  in  the  vise  with  one  edge  up,  and  bore  the  holes  about 

half  way  through  ;  reverse  the  edges  and  bore  way  through. 

4.  Make  the  construction  lines  for  the  pointed  end,  and  place  the  piece 

in  the  vise  so  that  the  end  will  project  a  little  beyond  the  end  of 
the  bench ;  cut  nearly  to  the  oblique  lines  with  the  wide  chisel, 
and  finish  to  the  lines  with  the  smoothing  plane. 

5.  Measure  15"  from  the  wide  end,  and  square  a  pencil  line  around  the 

wood. 

6.  Gauge  the  four  15"  lines  from  the  marked  edge  on  both  sides,  begin- 

ning at  the  squared  line. 

7.  Place  the  piece  in  the  vise  in  a  vertical  jDOsition,  having  the  end 

about  5"  above  the  top  of  the  bench,  and  saw  down  about  4"  in 
each  of  the  four  gauge  lines ;  repeat  the  process  until  the 
squared  line  is  reached. 

8.  From  model  No.  6  cut  three  pieces  of  the  lengths  shown  in  the  draw- 

ing, and  make  a  light  pencil  mark  \"  on  each  side  of  the  centre 
of  the  length  of  each  i^iece. 

9.  Place  the  three  dowels  through  the  holes  in  the  slats  so  as  to  have  the 

pencil  marks  on  the  dowels  even  with  the  sides  of  the  centre  slat ; 
secvire  in  place  by  nailing  through  the  centre  slat  into  the  dowels. 

10.  Fasten  a  hand  screw  to  the  piece  just  below  where  the  slats  end,  to 

prevent  sjilitting  ;  spread  the  slats  according  to  distances  shown* 
in  the  drawing  each  side  of  the  centre  and  fasten  in  place  with 
nails. 
Analysis  for  marking  :  — 

Dimensions,  30 ;    sawing,  32 ;    boring,  15 ;    nailing,  15 ;    finish,  8 ; 
total,  100. 


Plate  IX. 


INDUSTKIAL    EDUCATION.  151 

Models  for  Second  Year  (Second  Grade*). 

MODEL  No.  15. 
Tool-strop  Box. 

Material,  I"  and  2\"  pine  wood ;  leather  8"  x  2"  x  Jg"  ;  four  |"  brads. 

Sawing  dimensions,  box,  one   piece,  18^"  x  3^"  x  |"  ;    block,  one 

piece,  8|"  x  2\"  x  If".    Planing  dimensions,  two  pieces,  9"  x  3"  x  if"  ; 

one  piece,  8"  x  2"  x  1|". 
New  exercises :  — 

III  Bench  Work.  —  Chiselling  out  grooves  with  closed  ends ;  filing 
points  of  brands. 
New  tools :  — 

For  Bench  Work.  —  Safe  edge,  smooth  file. 

Order  of  Exercises. 

1.  Prepare  two  pieces  for  box,  9"  x  3"  x  \^" . 

2.  Prepare  one  piece  for  block,  8"  x  2"  x  1|". 

3.  On  the  first  side  of  the  two  box  pieces  gauge  \"  from  the  marked 

edge  and  one  end  of  each. 

4.  Place  the  block  on  one  of  the  pieces  so  as  to  have  the  edge  and  end 

fit  the  gauge  lines,  and  with  the  point  of  the  knife  mark  along  the 
opposite  edge  and  end  ;  repeat  the  process  on  the  other  box  piece. 

5.  Secure  one  of  the  box  pieces  to  the  top  of  the  bench  by  means  of  a 

hand  screw ;  hold  the  wide  chisel  vertically  just  inside  of  the 
end  lines  with  the  bevel  toward  the  wood  to  be  removed,  and 
strike  the  chisel  lightly  with  the  mallet ;  move  the  chisel  about 
I"  farther  away  from  the  end  line  with  its  bevel  side  down,  and 
remove  the  wood  between  it  and  the  vertical  cut.  Kepeat  the 
process  at  the  ends  of  both  pieces  until  a  depth  of  about  \"  is 
reached. 

6.  Cut  vertically  directly  in  the  end  lines. 

7.  Score  out  the  wood  between  the  ends  not  quite  to  the  side  lines  to 

the  depth  of  about  \". 

8.  Place  one  of  the  pieces  in  the  vise  horizontally  and  pare  down  in  the 

side  lines.  Smooth  out  to  a  depth  of  ■^^".  Do  the  same  to  the 
other  piece  to  the  depth  of  |". 

9.  Chamfer  the  cover. 

10.  On  the  bottom,  about  \"  from  each  corner,  drive  a  |"  brad,  leaving 

the  heads  projecting  about  Jg". 

11.  File  the  brad  heads  to  a  point  with  the  safe  edge  file. 

12.  Glue  the  leather  to  the  block,  placing  the  glue  on  the  wood,  and 

when  dry  trim  it  even  with  the  block. 

13.  Put  the  box  together  and  sand-paper  the  outside. 
Analysis  for  marking :  — 

Dimensions,  45  ;  angles,  20  ;  uniformity,  18  ;  chamfering,  8  ;  finish, 
9  ;  total,  100. 

*  Class  II.  in  the  Boston  grammar  schools,  or  eighth  year  of  school. 


152  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

MODEL   No.  16. 

Pkessikg  or  Cutting  Board. 

Material,   |"   pine.      Sawing  dimensions,    19i"x4|"x|",   two   pieces. 

Planing  dimensions,  19|"  x7^"  xii'',  one  piece. 
New  exercises :  — 

In  Bench  Work.  —  Planing  wide  surface  ;  jointing  and  gluing  edges. 

Order  of  Exercises. 

1.  Joint  one  edge  of  each  of  the  sawed  pieces. 

2.  Glue  and  rub  the  edges  together. 

3.  Plane  one  side  flat ;  gauge  the  thickness  and  plane  to  lines ;  joint 

one  edge  ;  gauge  and  plane  width. 

4.  Bore  the  centre  hole  and  those  which  form  part  of  the  construction, 

and  saw  with  turning  saw  just  outside  of  the  curves. 
6.    Finish  with  spoke  shave,  file  and  sand-paper. 
Analysis  for  marking  :  — 

Dimensions,  30  ;  angles,  20  ;  joint,  20  ;  finish,  30  ;  total,  100. 

MODEL  No.  17. 
Joints. 

Comer  joints,  halved-together  joint,  open  mortise  and  tenon  joint, 
half-dovetail  and  dovetail  joint.  Material,  1^"  pine.  Sawing 
dimensions,  one  piece,  12i''x4"  x  1|''.  Planing  dimensions,  four 
pieces,  6" x If" x 1|". 

New  exercises :  — 

In  Bench  Work.  —  Laying  out  and  cutting  the  four  joints. 

Order  of  Exercises. 

1.  From  a  1\"  plank  saw  a  piece  12\"  x4". 

2.  Plane  one  side  flat  and  joint  one  edge. 

3.  Gauge  the  1|"  thickness  and  plane  to  the  line. 

4.  Block  plane  the  ends  square. 

5.  Measure  6"  from  both  ends,  and  with  the  try  square  and  knife  draw 

lines  entirely  arovmd  the  piece. 

6.  Saw  just  outside  of  the  lines,  and  block  plane  to  them. 

7.  From  the  marked  edge  gauge  If"  and  then  l\l". 

8.  Saw  between  the  lines  and  plane  to  them,  marking  the  new  surface 

on  the  unfinished  piece  No.  2. 

9.  Gauge  the  two  unfinished  pieces  If",  and  plane  to  the  lines. 

10.  In  laying  out  the  joints  do  all  the  gauging  from  the  upper  or  first 

side  of  each  piece. 

11.  With  two  of  the  pieces  lay  out  the  halved-together  joint  and  remove 

the  wood  as  in  No.  11. 

12.  With  the  right-hand  piece  and  a  third  piece  lay  out  the  mortise  and 

tenon  joint. 


INDUSTEIAL    EDUCATION.  153 

13.  In  removing  wood  from  mortise  bore  as  in  No.  8  near  the  blind  end 

with  a  bit  of  proper  size,  and  rough  out  with  back  saw,  finishing 
with  chisel. 

14.  On  right-hand  end  of  third  piece  and  a  fourth  piece  lay  out  the  half- 

dovetail  joint,  drawing  the  oblique  lines  with  the  knife  point. 

15.  Remove  the  wood  as  before,  using  care  on  the  oblique  lines  to  cut 

from  the  end  of  the  wood  toward  the  centre. 

16.  On  the  right-hand  end  of  the  fourth  piece  and  the  left-hand  end  of 

the  first  piece,  lay  out  the  dovetail  joint  and  remove  the  wood 
as  before. 

17.  Glue  the  joints  together  and  clean  the  model  with  the  smoothing 

plane  and  fine  sand-paper. 
Analysis  for  marking  :  — 

Dimensions,  36  ;  joints,  40  ;  angles,  16  ;  finish,  8  ;  total,  100. 

MODEL   No.    18. 

Match  Safe. 

Material,  1"  and  i"  pine  wood;  No.  \  sand-paper;  three  1"  No.  6 
screws ;  two  |"  No.  6  screws.  Sawing  dimensions,  one  piece,  4^" 
X  4^"  X  1"  ;  one  piece,  7|"  x  1\"  x  \".  Planing  dimensions,  one 
piece,  4"  x  4"  x  \"  ;  one  piece,  7-|"  x  7-|"  x  ^-^" . 

New  exercises :  — 

In  Drawing,  —  Three  views,  geometrical  problem,  — to  construct  a 

regular  octagon  within  a  square. 
In  Bench  Work.  —  Making  quarter-round  moulding,  fluting,  coun- 
tersinking and  screwing 

New  tools :  — 

For  Bench  Work.  —  German  bit,  countersink  and  screw  driver. 

Order  of  Exercises. 

1.  Prepare  a  piece,  7|"  x7^"  x  JJ'. 

2.  Draw  the  construction  for  the  octagon,  remove  the  wood  from  the 

corners  with  the  back  saw,  sawing  just  outside  of  the  lines. 
Block  plane  to  the  lines 

3.  Bore  the  hole  ;  gauge  the  lines  on  the  first  side,  edges  and  ends,  and 

remove  the  corners  with  a  gouge ;  finish  the  fluted  parts  with 
fine  sand-paper  wound  about  a  dowel. 

4.  Bore  and  countersink  the  holes  for  the  screws,  finishing  with  sand- 

paper. 

5.  Prepare  a  piece,  4"  x  4"  x  I". 

6.  Draw  the  construction  lines  for  the  quarter-round  moulding  and  cut 

the  end  first,  using  chisel,  file  and  sand-paper.     Cut  the  edges 
in  the  same  manner. 

7.  Flute  the  pockets  with  the  gouge,  using  a  narrow  chisel  at  the  ends. 

8.  Screw  the  two  parts  together.     Cut  and  glue  the  sand-paper. 
Analysis  for  marking  :  — 

Dimensions,  32  ;  quarter-roimd  moulding,  18  ;  pockets,  10  ;  quarter 
fluting,  16  ;  screwing,  10  ;  finish,  14  ;  total,  100. 


164:  MAJS^UAL    TRAINING   AND 


MODEL  No.   19. 
Bkead  Trencher. 

Material,  |"  pine.    Sawing  dimensions,  121"  x  9i"  x  |".    Planing  dimen- 
sions, 121"  X  91"  X  I". 

New  exercises :  — ■ 

In  Drawing.  —  Geometrical  problem,  —  to  draw  a  curve  approxi- 
mating an  ellipse,  having  given  the  major  axis. 
In  Bench  Work.  —  Cutting  a  fillet  and  quarter-round  moulding. 

Order  of  Exercises. 

1.  Saw  from  a  flat  |"  board  a  piece  121"  x  9^',  and  on  it  construct  the 

curves. 

2.  Saw  with  the  turning  saw  just  outside  of  the  line. 

3.  Spoke  shave  to  the  line,  keeping  the  edge  square. 

4.  Secure  the  piece  to  the  bench  with  a  hand  screw  and  chisel  down 

just  outside  of  the  inner  curve  not  quite  -|"  deep. 

5.  Remove  the  rabbet  with  the  chisel,  having  the  direction  of  the  stroke 

toward  the  outside,  to  avoid  injuring  the  shoulder. 

6.  Being  careful  that  the  chisel  is  held  vertically,  chisel  to  the  curve 

line. 

7.  Model  the  curved  moulding  with  the  chisel,  and  finish  with  file  and 

sand-paper. 
Analysis  for  marking  :  — 

Dimensions,  40  ;  curves,  32  ;  shoulder,  16  ;  finish,  12  ;  total,  100. 

MODEL  No.  20. 
Trestle. 

Material,  2i"  and  |"  pine  wood  ;  sixteen  No.  13  2"  wire  nails.  Sawing 
dimensions,  one  piece,  181"  x  ^"  x  2i"  ;  four  pieces,  20i"  x  3i"  x  |"  ; 
one  piece,  6|"  x9^"x|".  Planing  dimensions,  one  piece,  18"  x4" 
x  2"  ;  four  pieces,  20i"  x  3"  x  |"  ;  one  piece,  6"  x  9^'  x|". 

New  exercises :  — 

In  Drawing.  —  To  scale  (^  size). 

Order  of  Exercises. 

1.  Prepare  a  piece,  18"  x  4"  x  2". 

2.  With  the  try  square  and  knife  draw  lines  around  the  piece  3"  from 

each  end. 

3.  On  the  first  side  gauge  from  both  edges  from  these  lines  to  the 

nearer  end  1^ '. 

4.  In  like  manner  gauge  on  the  opposite  side  |". 

5.  Connect  the  11"  and  |"  lines  at  each  end  with  the  bevel  and  knife. 

6.  Remove  the  corners  with  the  back  saw,  sawing  just  outside  the 

lines. 

7.  Finish  to  the  lines  with  the  chisel,  as  in  model  No.  17. 

8.  Prepare  four  pieces,  20i"  x  3"  x  I". 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION.  155 

9.  Bevel  both  ends  of  each,  piece  with  the  back  saw  ;  clean  both  sides 

with  the  smoothing  plane. 

10.  Glue  and  nail  the  legs  to  the  top. 

11.  Block  plane  the  ends  of  the  piece  61"  x  9|"  x|",  making  it  6"  long. 

12.  Place  the  trestle  upside  down  on  the  bench,  and  draw  the  converg- 

ing lines  on  the  end  pieces  by  placing  the  side  of  the  piece 
against  the  outer  edge  of  the  legs. 

13.  Saw  just  outside  of  the  lines,  and  plane  to  the  lines  with  the  smooth- 

ing plane,  testing  the  edges  with  the  try  square. 

14.  Hold  the  pieces  between  the  legs  by  means  of  a  hand  screw,  and 

secure  in  place  with  glue  and  nails. 

15.  Finish  the  ends  and  top  with  smoothing  plane. 

16.  Round  the  corners  of  the  top  piece  with  a  gouge. 
Analysis  for  marking :  — 

Dimensions,  42  ;  joints,  20  ;  nails,  28  ;  finish,  10  ;  total,  100. 

MODEL  No.  21. 
Bench  Hook  and  Planing  Board. 

Material,  |"  pine  wood,  V  cherry  wood ;  five  IJ"  No.  10  screws ;  one 
1"  No.  10  screw.  Sawing  dimensions,  one  piece  pine,  12^"  x  8^' 
x|";  one  piece,  12^"x6^"x|";  one  piece  cherry,  15''x2^"xl". 
Planing  dimensions,  one  piece  pine,  12''  x  8"  x  ^"  ;  one  piece,  12"  x  6'' 
X  I"  ;  one  piece  cherry,  8''  x  2"  x  |"  ;  one  piece,  6"  x  2"  x  |". 

New  tools :  — 

For  Bench  Work.  —  -^g"  German  bit. 

Order  of  Exercises. 

1.  From  a  |"  pine  board  prepare  one  piece  12"  x  8"  x  i"  and  one  piece 

12"  X  6"  X  1". 

2.  From  a  1"  cherry  board  prepare  one  piece  8"  x  2''  x  |''  and  one  piece 

6"  X  2"  X  I". 

3.  Glue  the  two- pine  pieces  together. 

4.  Being  careful  to  have  the  edges  of  the  cherry  pieces  at  right  angles 

to  the  edges  of  the  pine  pieces,  secure  them  in  place  by  means 
of  glue,  hand  screws  and  screws. 

5.  Bore  the  hole,  and  chamfer  the  comer  of  the  shorter  cherry  piece. 

6.  Finish  with  fine  sand-paper. 
Analysis  for  marking  :  — 

Dimensions,  48  ;  angles,  20  ;  screws,  12  ;  finish,  20  ;  total,  100. 

MODEL  No.  22. 

Marble  Rake. 

Material,  !'■  pine.  Sawing  dimensions,  14|"x  4"  x|".  Planing  dimen- 
sions, 14"  x3|"  x|".* 

*  One  edge  jointed. 


156  MANUAL    TRAINING  AND 

New  exercises :  — 

In  Drawing.  —  Free-hand  ellipse. 

In  Bench  Work.  —  Modelling  a  handle  any  cross  section  of  which 
will  be  an  ellipse. 

Order  of  Exercises. 

1.  Saw  out  a  piece  from  a  |"  board  141"  x  4". 

2.  Joint  one  edge  of  the  piece  and  block  plane  one  end  square. 

3.  Draw  the  construction  lines. 

4.  Place  the  piece  horizontally  in  the  vise  and  bore  the  holes. 

5.  With  the  try  square  and  knife  draw  lines  from  the  sides  of  the  holes 

on  one  side  aroimd  the  jointed  edge  to  the  sides  of  the  holes 
on  the  opposite  side. 

6.  Being  careful  to  avoid  letting  the  saw  scar  the  sides  of  the  holes, 

saw  with  the  back  saw  just  inside  the  knife  lines. 

7.  Chisel  to  the  lines,  as  in  model  No.  17. 

8.  Saw  just  outside  the  curved  lines  with  the  turning  saw. 

9.  Finish  to  the  lines  with  the  spoke  shave,  gouge  and  file. 

10.  Draw  a  free-hand  ellipse  on  the  end  of  the  handle. 

11.  Model  the  handle  with  the  spoke  shave,  file,  cabinet  scraper  and 

sand-paper. 
Analysis  for  marking :  — 

Dimensions,  80  ;   curves,  20  ;  boring,  20  ;  chiselling,  16  ;  finish,  14 ; 
total,  TOO. 


Models  for  Third  Year  (First  Grade*). 

MODEL  No.  23. 

Joints. 

Halved-together,  half-dovetail,  mortise  and  tenon,  and  blind  mortise  and 

tenon  joints. 
Material,  1|"  pine,  \"  black  Avalnut.     Sawing  dimensions,  pine,  151"  x 

4"  X  1|"  ;  black  walnut,  4"  x  i"  x  i".     Planing  dimensions,  two  pieces 

pine,  91"  x  If"  x  If"  ;  one  piece,  5^'  x  1|"  x  If"  ;  one  piece,  4|"  x  If" 

X  1|"  ;  one  piece  black  walnut,  4"  x  f "  x  |". 
New  exercises :  — 

In  Bench  Work.  —  Laying  out  and  cutting  the  four  joints ;   draw- 
boring  and  dowelling. 

Order  of  Exercises, 

1.  Prepare  the  four  pieces  as  in  No.  17. 

2.  Place  the  pieces  on  the  bench  with  the  first  side  up,  and  letter  them 

a,  b,  c  and  d,  as  on  the  drawing. 

3.  Lay  out  the  four  joints  with  the  try  square,  knife  and  gauge,  and 

remove  the  wood  as  in  model  No.  17. 

*  Class  I.  in  the  Boston  grammar  schools,  or  ninth  year  of  school. 


B.F.EDDY'S  SYSTEM. 
HiRO  YEAR -FIRST  GRADE 


Plate  X. 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION.  157 

4.  From  the  top  side  of  the  c  piece  bore  a  |"  hole  through  the  centre 

of  each  mortise. 

5.  Insert  the  tenons,  place  the  bit  in  the  holes  already  bored,  and  press 

the  point  against  the  tenons ;  withdraw  the  tenons  and  bore 
holes  through  them,  starting  the  bit  a  little  nearer  the  shoulder 
of  the  tenons  than  the  marks  are, 

6.  Make  the  dowels,  cutting  them  a  little  longer  than  the  holes,  and 

drive  them  in  place. 

7.  Cut  off  the  projecting  portion  of  the  dowels,  and  clean  the  model 

with  fine  sand-paper. 
Analysis  for  marking  :  — 

Dimensions,  36;   joints,  24;    dowels,  10;    angles,  16;    finish,  14; 
total,  100. 

MODEL  No.  24. 
Mallet. 

Material,  3"  maple  and  1|"  cherry.  Sawing  dimensions,  one  piece  maple, 
5^"  X  8"  X  3"  ;  one  piece  cherry,  Hi"  x  1|"  x  li".  Planing  dimen- 
sions, one  piece  maple,  5'' x2|"x2|" ;  one  piece  cherry,  11|"  x  1" 
xl". 

New  exercises :  — 

In  Drawing.  —  Free-hand  supple  curve. 

In  Bejich  Work.  —  Modelling  octagonal  handle,  wedging. 

New  tools :  — 

For  Bench  Work.  —  AVing  calipers. 

Order  of  Exercises. 

1.  Prepare  a  piece  of  maple,  5"  x  2|"  x  2f". 

2.  Bore  a  |"  hole  entirely  through  by  boring  half-way  from  opposite 

sides.  Elongate  the  hole  slightly  in  the  direction  of  the  grain 
at  one  end. 

3.  Draw  the  construction  lines  for  the  octagon  at  each  end. 

4.  Gauge  \"  around  on  each  end. 

6.     Connect  the  gauge  lines  on  two  opposite  sides  by  free-hand  curves. 

6.  Chisel  and  file  to  lines. 

7.  Connect  the  gauge  lines  on  the  two  curved  sides,  and  finish  to  lines 

as  before. 

8.  Connect  the  comers  of  the  octagon  at  each  end  on  all  four  sides. 

9.  Remove  the  corners  to  the  lines. 

10.  Prepare  a  piece  of  cherry,  liy  x  !'■  x  1". 

11.  Draw  the  curved  construction  lines  on  opj^osite  sides,  free  hand,  and 

proceed  to  make  it  octagonal,  using  the  same  steps  and  tools  as 
in  making  the  maple  head. 

12.  Make  the  dowel  at  the  end,  and  fit  it  to  the  head. 

13.  With  the  knife  split  the  dowel  slightly  in  the  middle  at  its  end. 

14.  Make  the  small  cherry  wedge,  and  after  placing  the  head  and  han- 

dle together  glue  and  drive  the  wedge  into  the  split  at  the  end 
of  the  handle. 


158  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

15    Saw  ojff  the  extra  length  of  the  dowel,  and  wedge  and  finish  with 

chisel. 
16.  Finish  all  with  fine  sand-paper. 
Analysis  for  marking  :  — 

Dimensions,  42  ;  curves,  32  ;  wedging,  8  ;  finish,  18  ;  total,  100. 

MODEL  No.  25. 

Mitre  Box. 

Material,  1^"  and  1"  pine  wood;  eight  1^"  No.  10  screws.     Sawing 

dimensions,  one  piece,  16^"  x3|"xl|"  ;  two  pieces,  16|"x4|"xl". 

Planing  dimensions,  one  piece,  16"  x  3  j"  x  1|"  ;  two  pieces,  16"  x  4|'' 

xi'-. 
New  exercises :  — 

In  Bench  Work.  —  Back  sawing  between  lines. 
New  tools :  — 

For  Bench  Work.  —  ^^'  German  bit. 

Order  of  Exercises. 

1.  Prepare  one  piece,  16"  x  3|"  x  If". 

2.  Prepare  two  pieces,  16"  x  4|"  x  |". 

3.  On  the  marked  side  of  the  two  pieces  just  prepared  bore  and  counter- 

sink the  holes  for  the  screws,  using  a  g^,"  bit. 

4.  Secure  the  sides  to  the  bottom  by  means  of  tv\'^o  hand  screws,  and 

fasten  in  place  with  eight  screws. 

5.  On  the  top  edges  and  outsides  of  the  side  pieces  lay  out  and  draw 

very  carefully  the  lines  between  which  the  saw  is  to  run. 

6.  Secure  the  box  to  the  bench  with  a  hand  screw,  and  saw  very  slowly 

and  carefully  between  the  lines  with  the  back  saw. 
Analysis  for  marking :  — 

Dimensions,  45  ;  angles,  25  ;  sawing,  30  ;  total,  100. 

MODEL   No.   26. 

Picture  Frame. 

Material,  |"  chestnut  wood,  |"  birch  dowel.  Sawing  dimensions,  two 
pieces,  16  '  x2y'  x  I"  ;  two  pieces,  14"  x  2i"  x  |"  ;  eight  dowels,  |" 
X  I"  X  I".  Planing  dimensions,  two  pieces,  16"  x  2"  x  f";  two 
pieces,  14"  X  2"  X  I". 

New  exercises :  — 

In  Bench  Work.  —  Mitring  with  mitre  box,  dowelling,  and  clamping 
mitred  comers. 

New  tools :  — 

For  Bench  Work.  —  Mitre  box,  bit  stop. 

Order  of  Exercises. 

1,  Prepare  two  pieces,  16"  x  2"  x  |",  and  two  pieces,  14"  x  2"  x  |". 

2.  Saw  one  end  of  each  piece  to  an  angle  of  45'\  using  the  mitre  box. 

Save  the  triangular  ends  for  future  use. 


i:n^dustrial  educatioi^.  159 

3.  Block  plane  the  mitred  ends  perfectly  true,  testing  with  bevel  and 

try  square. 

4.  On  the  shorter  edge  of  the  two  longer  pieces  measure  from  the 

mitred  end  Hi"  ;  square  a  line  across  the  edge,  and  with  the 
bevel  set  at  45°  draw  a  line  with  the  knife  point  across  the  first 
side. 

5.  Place  the  pieces  in  the  mitre  box  and  saw  just  outside   the  line ; 

finish  with  block  plane,  as  before 

6.  Repeat  the  process  on  the  two  shorter  pieces,  making  them  Qi"  long, 

inside  measurement. 

7.  With  the  gauge  set  at  half  tlie  thickness  gauge  from  the  first  side 

the  entire  length  of  the  mitred  ends. 

8.  On  the  gauged  lines  at  each  end  of  the  two  longer  pieces  measure 

from  the  inside  edge  |",  and  make  a  fine  mark  with  the  knife 
point ;  measure  again  from  the  inside  edge  2". 

9.  Square  lines  from  tlie  measurements  to  the  unmarked  side. 

10.  Place  the  pieces  in  position  on  the  bench  with  the  marked  side 

down,  and  letter  the  pieces  ;  then  mark  the  |"  and  2"  measure- 
ments on  the  shorter  pieces,  and  square  lines  across  the  gauged 
lines. 
H.  At  the  intersection  of  the  gauge  and  knife  lines  prick  the  centres  for 
the  holes. 

12.  Secure  the  bit  stop  to  a  |"  bit,  so  as  to  bore  a  hole  but  |"  deep,  and 

bore  the  holes  in  each  piece,  holding  the  piece  in  the  vise  with 
the  mitred  end  parallel  with  the  top  of  the  bench. 

13.  On  the  outside  edge  of  each  piece  near  the  ends  glue  one  of  the 

triangular  pieces  so  that  the  mitred  end  will  be  opposite  and 
parallel  to  the  mitred  joint. 

14.  After  the  glue  is  dry  change  the  comer  formed  by  the  inside  edge 

and  unmarked  side  to  a  }"  rabbet,  by  using  the  rabbet  plane. 
16.  From  a  |"  dowel  saw  eight  |''  pieces.    Place  glue  on  the  ends  and 
in  the  holes  at  the  opposite  diagonal  corners  of  the  frame,  and 
secure  in  place  until  dry  with  hand  screws. 

16.  Glue  the  other  two  corners  in  the  same  manner. 

17.  Finish  with  the  smoothing  plane,  cabinet  scraper  and  fine  sand- 

paper. 
Analysis  for  marking :  — 

Dimensions,  48  ;  angles,  24  ;  rabbet,  12  ;  finish,  16  ;  total,  100. 


MODEL  No.  27. 

Cabinet  Picture  Frame. 

Material,  I"  and  I"  pine  wood ;  one  No.  16  1"  and  three  No.  18  |"  wire 
brads.  Sawing  dimensions,  frame,  one  piece,  17 1"  x  2A"  x  |"  ;  hinge 
and  support,  one  piece,  7^"  x  If"  x  J"  ;  back  board,  one  piece,  7"  x 
4|''xi".  Planing  dimensions,  two  pieces  for  frame,  9|"xl"x|"; 
two  pieces,  7|"  x  1"  x  |"  ;  one  piece  for  hinge  and  support,  7"  x  1"  x 
I"  ;  one  piece  for  back  board,  6^"  x4i"  x  \". 


160  MANUAL    TRAESriNG  AJN^D 

New  exercises :  — 

In   Bench   Work.  —  Rabbeting,  fret  sawing   and    making  halved- 
together  joint,  and  hinge  joint. 
New  tools :  — 

For  Bench  Work.  — Fret  saw,  y^"  drill. 

Order  of  Exercises. 

1.  From  a  |"  board  saw  a  piece  17|"  x  2^",  from  this  piece  prepare  four 

pieces,  two  9|"  x  1"  x  |"  and  two  7|"  x  1"  x  |",  using  the  same 
steps  in  making  the  four  pieces  as  in  model  No.  17. 

2.  With  the  marking  gauge,  try  square  and  sharp-pointed  knife,  draw 

the  lines  for  the  halved-together  joints. 

3.  Cut  the  joints  with  the  back  saw  and  chisel. 

4.  Glue  and  clamp  the  joints  in  place  by  using  hand  screws,  and  after 

the  glue  is  dry  lay  out  the  rabbet  with  the  gauge. 
6.    Fasten  the  frame  flat  on  the  bench  with  the  face  down,  and  cut  the 
rabbet  with  the  chisel,  scoring  nearly  to  the  lines  and  then  par- 
ing to  the  lines. 

6.  Prepare  a  piece  for  the  hinge  and  support,  7"  x  1"  x  |". 

7.  In  the  centre  of  the  thickness  and  If"  from  one  end  bore  a  hole  with 

a  Jg"  drill  entirely  through. 

8.  At  the  same  end  on  one  side  draw  the  construction  lines   for  the 

hinge  joint. 

9.  Fasten  the  fret-sawing  board  to  the  bench  by  means  of  a  hand  screw, 

and  place  the  hinge  piece  on  the  board  with  the  part  to  be  sawed 
over  the  opening.  Being  careful  to  keep  the  saw  blade  in  a 
vertical  position,  saw  in  the  line. 

10.  Hold  the  two  parts  together  by  means  of  a  1"  wire  nail,  bevel  the 

under  side  of  the  tenon,  and  chamfer  the  upper  part  of  the 
hinge. 

11.  Prepare  a  piece  7"  x  4:\"  x  \"  ;  bevel  the  edges,  and  fasten  the  hinge 

in  place  by  means  of  three  |"  wire  brads. 

12.  After  the  glass  and  picture  are  in  place  fasten  in  the  back  with  four 

brads. 
Analysis  for  marking  :  — 

Dimensions,  36  ;  joints,  20  ;  hinge,  15  ;  drilling,  5  ;  finish,  24 ;  total, 
100. 

MODEL  No.  28. 
Planing  Trough. 

Material,  1|"  and  |"  pine  wood  ;  five  No.  18  2"  wire  brads  ;  two  No.  16 
1^-"  wire  brads;  and  seven  No.  18  |"  wire  brads.  Sawing  dimen- 
sions, one  piece,  20|"x3^"  xl|" ;  one  piece,  20|"xlf"x|";  one 
piece,  18|"  x  2f  "  x  \".  Planing  dimensions,  one  piece,  20'  x  3"  x  If"  ; 
one  piece,  20"xlf  x|";  one  piece,  18"  xl^^^'/x^'^g" ;  one  piece, 
18"x|"x-,V'. 

New  exercises :  — 

In  Bench  Work.  —  Planing  chamfers. 


ZN^DUSTRIAL   EDUCATION.  161 

Order  of  Exercises. 

1.  Prepare  a  piece,  20"  x  3"  x  If". 

2.  Gauge  If"  from  the  marked  side  on  the  marked  edge  and  from  the 

marked  edge  on  the  marked  side. 

3.  Remove  the  corner  by  standing  the  piece  upright  in  the  vise  and 

sawing  just  outside  the  lines.    Plane  to  the  lines,  testing  the 
surface  with  the  bevel  set  at  135°  and  held  close  to  the  first  side. 

4.  Make  a  piece  2"  long  from  the  comer  piece  just  removed. 

5.  Prepare  a  piece,  20"  x  If"  x  |". 

6.  Gauge  ^-^",  and  chamfer  the  corner  formed  by  the  marked  side  and 

unmarked  edge. 

7.  Glue  and  nail  this  piece  in  place,  using  five  No.  13  2"  wire  brads. 

8.  Glue  and  nail  the  triangular  piece  in  place,  using  two  No.  15  1\" 

wire  brads. 

9.  Prom  the  piece  18§"  x  2|"  x  \"  prepare  two  pieces,  one  18"  x  1^%"  x 

^■^g",  the  other  18"  x  f "  x  ^-^". 

10.  Gauge  ^^"  on  each  piece,  as  in  exercise  No.  2  in  this  model. 

11.  Glue  and  nail  the  two  pieces  together,  using  seven  No.  18  |"  wire 

brads. 

12.  Place  the  piece  in  the  trough,  and  chamfer  by  planing  to  the  lines. 
Analysis  for  marking  :  — 

Dimensions,  40  ;  angles,  25  ;  nailing,  14 ;  chamfering,  9  ;  finish,  12  ; 
total,  100. 

MODEL  No.  29. 
Towel  Roller. 

Material,  1|",  |"  and  \"  pine  wood;  four  No.  8  1"  screws.  Sawing 
dimensions,  one  piece,  20"  x  b\''  x  \"  ;  one  piece,  19|^"  x2"x  1|"  ; 
one  piece,  4|"  x  2|"  x  I".  Planing  dimensions,  one  piece,  19|"  x 
5|"  X  y'^g"  ;  one  piece,  19"  x  If"  x  1|"  ;  two  pieces,  2"  x2"  x  \". 

New  exercises :  — 

In  Bench  Work.  —  Cylindrical  planing,  veining  and  carving. 

New  tools :  — 

For  Bench  Work  —  Planing  trough,  veiner,  skew  chisel  and  wing 
calipers. 

Order  of  Exercises. 

1.  From  a  \"  board  saw  a  piece  20"  x5|". 

2.  Make  one  side  flat,  joint  one  edge  and  block  plane  both  ends,  mak- 

ing it  19|"  long. 

3.  Square  a  fine  pencil  line  across  the  centre  of  the  first  side,  and 

extend  the  line  on  an  extra  piece,  on  which  find  the  centre  for 
the  larger  curves 

4.  Draw  the  other  construction  lines  with  the  gauge,  try  square  and 

knife,  and  bore  the  |"  holes. 
6.    Remove  the  wood  just  outside  of  the  lines  with  the  turning  saw,  and 

finish  with  the  chisel  and  spoke  shave. 
6.    Make  the  lines  with  the  veiner  and  do  the  carving  with  the  skew 

chisel. 


162  MANUAL    TEATNTXG    AND 

7.  Gauge  and  plane  the  piece  -^g"  thick. 

8.  Bore  and  countersink  the  holes  for  the  screws  for  the  brackets,  and 

those  through  which  the  screws  go  that  are  to  hold  the  model 
to  the  wall. 

9.  Prepare  a  piece,  19"  x  If"  xl|"  ;  draw  a  circle  and  octagon  on  each 

end. 

10.  On  all  four  long  surfaces  gauge  lines   connecting   corresponding 

corners  of  the  octagons. 

11.  Place  the  planing  trough  in  the  vise,  and  with  the  piece  resting  in 

the  trough  plane  to  the  lines. 

12.  Remove  the  next  set  of  corners  in  the  same  way,  and  continue  to  do 

so  until  the  circumference  of  the  circles  at  the  ends  is  reached. 

13.  Remove  the  remaining  corners  with  the  flat  file  and  sand-paper. 

14.  At  the  centre  of  each  end  draw  a  circle  |"  in  diameter ;  from  each 

end  gauge  i"  around  the  piece  and  deepen  the  line  a  little  with 
the  knife. 

15.  Saw  with  the  back  saw  just  outside  the  knife  cuts  about  i"  deep. 

16.  Remove  the  wood  to  the  lines  with  the  chisel,  and  finish  the  dowels 

with  file  and  sand-paper. 

17.  From  the  piece  4^"  x2|"  x|"  prepare  two  pieces,  2"x2"x|". 

18.  Draw  the  construction  on  the  pieces,  and  bore  at  the  centre  on  one 

side  of  each  a  hole  f "  wide  and  I"  deep. 

19.  On  the  left-hand  bracket  gauge  lines  from  the  sides  of  the  hole  to 

the  end  and  halfway  across  the  end. 

20.  Cut  out  the  slot  between  the  lines  to  the  depth  of  i"  with  chisels. 

21.  Clean  all  parts  with  fine  sand-paper,  and  screw  them  together. 
Analysis  for  marking :  — 

Dimensions,  24 ;    curves,  12 ;   roller,  15 ;    carving,  15 ;    boring,  8 ; 
dowel,  10  ;  finish,  16  ;  total,  100. 


MODEL  No.  30. 
Level. 

Material,  1|"  pine,  i"  black  walnut,  one  small  screw  eye,  ^^g"  sheet 
brass.  Sawing  dimensions,  one  piece,  24i"x4"xl|";  one  piece, 
12i"x2"xl|";  one  piece  black  walnut,  8"  x  |"  x  i''.  Planing 
dimensions,  one  piece,  24"  x  If  x  If"  ;  three  pieces,  12"  x  If"  x  1|"  ; 
one  piece  black  walnut,  8"  x  |"  x  |". 

New  exercises :  — 

7?^  Bench  Work.  —  Making  blind  mortise  and  tenon  joints  at  the  ends 
of  a  brace  and  a  square  pyramid ;  brass  filing  and  boring. 

New  tools : 

For  Bench  Work.  —  Large  steel  square. 

Order  of  Exercises. 

1.  Prepare  one  piece,  24"  x  If"  x  1|"  ;   three  pieces,  12"  x  If"  x  If". 

2.  Join  one  of  the  12  '  pieces  to  the  24 '  piece  by  a  blind  mortise  and 

tenon  joint,  making  the  tenon  1"  long. 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  163 

3.  Lay  out  and  cut  the  pyramid  at  the  top  end  of  the  upright  piece, 

using  back  saw  and  block  plane. 

4.  Being  careful  to  make  all  the  gauge  lines  from  the  first  side,  lay  out 

and  cut  the  tenons  at  the  ends  of  the  braces.     Cut  |"  from  the 
end  of  the  upper  tenons. 

5.  Place  the  base  and  upright  piece  together  on  the  bench  with  the  first 

side  up. 

6.  Be  sure  that  the  upright  piece  is  perpendicular  to  the  base  by  test- 

ing with  the  large  steel  square. 

7.  Lay  the  braces  in  place  with  the  sides  of  the  tenons  resting  on  the 

base  and  perpendicular,  and  indicate  the  exact  position  of  each 
mortise  by  very  fine  pencil  marks. 

8.  Lay  out  and  cut  the  mortises. 

9.  Drawbore  as  in  No.  23  for  the  dowels. 

10.  Make  the  dowel  with  the  plane,  using  planing  trough. 

11.  Mark  the  lines  for  the  chamfers  very  lightly  with  the  gauge,  and 

chamfer  with  chisel. 

12.  Before  the  model  is  put  together  clean  the  edges  of  each  piece. 

13.  Put  the  pieces  together  and  drive  the  dowels  in  place. 

14.  Clean  the  sides. 

15.  At  the  centre  of  the  base  of  the  pyramid  on  the  front  side  of  the 

upright  piece  place  a  small  screw  eye ;   to  this  tie  the  plumb 
line. 

16.  Make  a  short  vertical  mark  with  the  chisel  in  the  centre  of  the  front 

side  of  the  base. 

17.  Cut  from  a  piece  of  Jg"  sheet  brass  and  file  to  shape  a  piece  for  the 

plumb. 
Analysis  for  marking  :  — 

Dimensions,  36  ;    angles,  21 ;  joints,  20  ;   pyramid,  9  ;    chamfering, 
14 ;  total,  100. 

MODEL   No.  31. 

Whisk  Broom  Pocket  and  Cabinet  Picture  Frame. 

Material,  1|"  and  |"  pine  wood ;  four  No.  14  2i"  screws ;  two  |"  brass 
escutcheon  pins.  Sawing  dimensions,  one  piece,  7\"  x  3"  x  1|"  ;  one 
piece,  12|"x7|"x^";  one  piece,  7|"  x5}-"  x  i".  Planing  dimen- 
sions, one  piece,  12|"  x  7^"  x  ^^"  ;  one  piece,  7"  x  5^"  x  ^y  ;  two 
pieces,  7"  x  1\"  x  1|." 

New  exercises :  — 

In  Bench  Work.  —  Inside  fret  sawing,  straight  fluting  and  inside 
quarter  fluting. 

Order  of  Exercises. 

1.  From  a  i"  board  prepare  a  piece  12 J"  x7^"  x  Jg". 

2.  Draw  a  fine  pencil  line  through  the  centre  of  the  width  the  entire 

length  of  the  piece  ;  from  this  line  draw  the  other  construction 
lines. 

3.  Bore  a  |"  hole  just  inside  of  each  end  of  the  inner  ellipse. 


164  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

4.  Through  these  holes  place  the  fret  saw  blade,  and  saw  with  the 

grain  just  inside  the  line. 

5.  Finish  to  the  line  with  the  Icnife.  . 

6.  Gauge  I"  from  the  first  side  around  the  inside  of  the  opening. 

7.  Remove  the  wood  from  this  line  to  the  line  forming  the  outer  ellipse, 

using  the  gouge. 

8.  Place  the  piece  in  the  vise  horizontally,  and  bore  the  1"  holes  form- 

ing part  of  the  outline. 

9.  Saw  with  the  turning  saw  just  outside  of  the  remaining  lines  and 

finish  with  the  spoke  shave  and  chisel. 

10.  Vein  the  lines. 

11.  From  the  piece  7|"  x  3"  x  1|"  prepare  two  pieces,  7"  x  1]"  x  1|". 

12.  Flute  the  grooves  with  the  gouge,  and  make  the  rabbet  with  the 

rabbeting  plane. 

13.  Prepare  a  piece,  7"  x5J"  x  ^g",  bore  and  cotmtersink  the  holes. 

14.  To  this  piece  glue  the  two  pieces,  7"  x  1^"  x  1|". 

15.  Drive  an  escutcheon  pin  |"  from  the  lower  end  of  each  rabbet. 

16.  Bore  the  four  screw  holes  through  the  back. 

17.  Secure  the  two  parts  together  by  means  of  four  No.  14  21"  screws. 
Analysis  for  marking  :  — 

Dimensions,  24  ;  outline,  16  ;  inside  ellipse,  12  ;  quarter  fluting,  12  ; 
veining,  16  ;  rabbets,  10  ;  half  fluting,  10  ;  total,  100. 

Exercises  in  "Wood  Turning. 
As  supplementary  to  the  foregoing  course  in  wood-working  may 
be   suggested   the  exercises  represented  in  the  following  plates 
(see  Plates  XIV.  and  XV.). 


Plate  XIV. 


£XEeCiSES  if^  WOOO  TURNING.     S' 


Plate  XV. 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATIOX.  165 


Appendix  H. 


THE  NORTHAMPTON  SYSTEM   OF   MANUAL   TRAINING. 

Bt  FREDERIC   A.    HINCKLEY. 


The  purpose  of  this  system  is  to  supply  at  small  expense  manual 
training  for  primary  and  grammar  grades  which  can  be  taught  in 
the  school-room,  and  if  necessary  by  the  regular  teacher. 

The  projector,  if  he  may  so  style  himself,  is  indebted  to  Mr. 
George  B.  Kilbon  of  Springfield  for  the  idea  of  using  the  jack- 
knife,  and  for  the  suggestion  of  utilizing  the  school-room  for 
manual  training  work,  also  for  help  in  certain  practical  details. 
He  is  indebted  to  Miss  E.  C.  Elder,  superintendent  of  free  kin- 
dergartens in  Buffalo,  for  the  thought  of  adapting  the  system  to 
primary  grades  and  for  much  co-operation  in  evolving  the  line- 
cutting  tablet  work  for  those  grades.  Many  of  the  other  elements 
of  the  course,  as  will  be  easily  seen,  have  been  suggested  to  him 
by  the  study  of  processes  already  in  existence.  His  attempt  has 
been  to  produce,  out  of  all  the  materials  at  hand,  assisted  by 
the  kind  co-operation  of  others,  a  logical,  progressive  American 
system,  in  keeping  with  public-school  methods,  and  easily  made 
a  part  of  public-school  administration.  He  has  named  it  the 
"  Northampton  System,"  because  that  city  has  adopted  it  and 
made  it  a  required  part  of  her  school  work. 

The  tools  needed  at  the  beginning  are  pencil,  rule  and  pocket 
knife.  Afterward  are  added  from  time  to  time  dividers,  hammer, 
screw  driver,  gimlet,  gauge  and  try  square.  At  first  the  work  is 
done  on  the  school  desk.  With  the  introduction  of  the  hammer  a 
plain  portable  desk  cover  is  provided,  which  transforms  the  desk 
to  a  simple  work  bench.  Only  such  tools  and  materials  are  selected 
as  are  available  in  the  ordinary  school-room. 

The  system  is  only  in  its  second  year  of  practical  administration 
here,  and  hence  has  not  been  graded  throughout.     The  plan  has 


1(56  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

been  to  begin  with  the  second  year  of  school,  and  to  continue  the 
course  to  the  graduation  from  the  grammar  grade,  or  the  com- 
pletion of  the  ninth  year ;  thus  practically  bridging  the  chasm 
between  the  hand-work  of  the  kindergarten  and  the  advanced  man- 
ual training  shops  of  the  high-school  grade.  Each  room  has  two 
periods  a  week  of  thirty  minutes  each,  that  being  the  time  given 
to  other  recitations.  For  the  present  all  the  grades  begin  at  the 
beginning,  thus  securing  ample  time  for  permanent  grading  in  the 
light  of  experience.  The  teachers  meet  with  the  projector  once  a 
week  for  an  hour  and  a  half,  and  easily  become  interested  and 
proficient  in  the  work,  as  do  the  children,  and  our  special  teacher 
of  drawing  now  gives  one-fourth  of  her  time  to  its  supervision. 

So  far  as  the  use  of  the  knife  is  concerned,  the  work  is  divided 
into  three  parts,  —  cutting  of  lines,  cutting  of  surfaces,  ciitting  of 
solids. 

We  did  not  in  Northampton  begin  the  work  with  the  first  year 
of  the  primary  school,  for  two  reasons  :  first,  it  was  a  fair  ques- 
tion, and  is,  we  think,  still,  whether  the  children  in  that  grade  are 
not  too  young  to  use  the  knife  with  precision  ;  second,  the  ten- 
dency in  all  first-year  primary  work  toward  kindergarten  methods, 
such  as  paper  folding  and  card-board  modelling,  is  really  a  very 
good  preparation  for  the  drawing  and  cutting  on  wood  to  follow. 

I  will  now  try  to  indicate 'as  briefly  as  possible  the  general  char- 
acter of  our  eight-years  course,  as  planned  and  in  process  of  ap- 
plication. The  second,  third  and  fourth  years  of  school  —  that 
is,  the  highest  three  grades  of  the  primary  school  —  are  provided 
with  line  cutting.  We  have  at  present  fifteen  plates,  covering 
eighty  tablets,  of  this  kind  of  instruction.  I  give  a  few  illustra- 
tions, as  hints  of  what  this  work  is,  because  they  are  quite  funda- 
mental to  an  understanding  of  the  course.  The  tablets  used  are 
of  bass-wood,  3  J  inches  square  and  for  border  patterns  8x2  inches, 
and  all  ^  inch  thick.  The  lessons  are  dictated,  not  copied,  and 
drawn  from  measurement,  before  being  cut.  After  whatever  pre- 
liminary lessons  in  the  use  of  rule  and  pencil  which  may  be  neces- 
sary have  been  given,  the  first  tablet  is  furnished  the  pupil,  and  he 
is  taught  to  knoTf  the  grain  of  the  wood,  and  to  place  the  tablet 
for  drawing  purposes  so  that  the  grain  will  run  from  back  to  front 
of  his  desk.  His  first  series  of  sixteen  tablets,  including,  before 
he  gets  through  with  them,  at  least  two  of  original  designs,  are 
limited  to  vertical  and  horizontal  lines,  first  the  elements,  then 
combination  of  the  elements,  then  designs  made  from  the  elements. 
For  example,  these  cuts,  drawn  to  a  scale  of  J  inch  to  the  inch, 
will  show  the  character  of  the  work  and  suggest  the  sequence. 
Nos.  1  and  2  are  the  elements,  vertical  and  horizontal  lines  ;  No. 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION. 


167 


3,  combination  of  the  same  ;  No.  4,  a  design  ;  and  No.  5,  an  his- 
toric border  pattern. 


I I 


, 


Having  completed  the  series  in  vertical  and  horizontal  lines,  the 
next  step  is  a  series  of  sixteen  in  oblique  lines.  The  following 
cuts  will  illustrate  it  sufficiently,  again  Nos.   1  and  2  being  the 


168 


MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 


elements,  No.  3  combination  of  the  elements,  No.  4  a  design  and 
No.  5  an  historic  border  pattern. 


Following  the  oblique  lines  come  sixteen  tablets,  which  are  com- 
binations of  the  vertical,  horizontal  and  oblique  ;  and  then,  with 
the  introduction  of  a  new  tool,  the  dividers,  come  sixteen  tablets 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION. 


169 


of  curved  lines,  with  elements,  combination,  design  and  border  as 
before. 


The  line-cutting  section  of  the  system  is  now  completed,  with 
sixteen  tablets  which  represent  combinations  of  all  the  lines. 

Now  follows  what  we  have  called,  by  way  of  distinction,  surface 
cutting.  It  consists,  first,  of  cutting  out  in  ^  inch  stock  the 
square,  triangle,  pentagon,  hexagon,  octagon,  circle,  ellipse  and 
oval ;  second,  of  a  series  of  crosses  and  various  vase  forms  ;  third, 


170 


MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 


of  openings,  vertical  and  horizontal,  oblique,  circular;  fourth,  in 
l  inch  stock  of  small  and  cabinet-sized  frame  fronts  with  line 
ornamentation. 

This  brings  us  to  the  sixth  year  of  school,  when  a  series  of 
problems  with  a  small  hammer  and  |  and  ^  inch  No.  20  wire  brads 
are  introduced.  First  ^  inch  and  afterwards  |  inch  stock  is 
furnished,  and  ten  problems  in  each  thickness,  passing  from  a 
simple  joint  to  various  kinds  of  boxes,  performed.  Then  follow 
problems  with  screw  driver  and  small  screws,  afterward  the  year 
being  finished  with  a  series  of  gimlet  problems. 

The  seventh  year  welcomes  two  new  tools,  the  gauge  and  try 
square.  Now  for  the  first  time  the  planed  stock  is  provided  in 
pieces  of  convenient  size,  and  the  pupil,  so  far  as  it  can  be  done 
with  knife,  gauge  and  try  squai'e,  gets  out  his  material.  Plain  and 
ornamental  box  and  frame  work  is  the  task  provided  for  this  year. 

For  the  eighth  year  jointing  and  fitting  problems  are  furnished, 
leading  up  gradually  to  lock-joint  boxes,  frames,  etc. 

The  following  illustrations  will  serve  to  suggest  the  form  study 
and  the  evolution  in  work  involved  in  the  cutting  of  crystal 
models  in  the  ninth  year.  The  cuts  are  made  to  a  scale  of  about 
^  inch  to  the  inch. 

Isometric  System :   the  Cube  furnished. 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATIOIsr. 


171 


Hexagonal  System :    the  Right  Prism  furnished. 


/r\\ 


xoz 


/^^ 


Yvr 


172  MANUAL    TKAIISTING   AND 

The  ninth  year  is  chiefly  devoted  to  the  cutting  of  solids.  Here 
the  material,  which  up  to  this  time  has  been  bass-wood,  is  changed 
to  soft  pine.  Cubes,  1|-  inches,  are  furnished,  and  from  them  are 
evolved  through  a  series  of  four  figures  the  cylinder,  through  a 
series  of  five  figures  the  cone,  and  through  a  series  of  seven  figures 
the  sphere.  In  a  similar  manner  from  the  right  prism  thus 
furnished  is  evolved  through  a  series  of  six  figures  the  ellipsoid, 
and  from  a  thick  square  through  a  series  of  five  figures  the  ring. 
Then  follows  the  cutting  of  fifty  odd  crystal  forms,  representa- 
tive of  the  six  systems  of  crystallization,  and  designed  to  be 
accompanied  with  specimens,  and  more  or  less  of  study,  of  the 
crystals  themselves. 

We  find  our  teachers  and  scholars,  without  distinction  of  sex, 
warmly  interested  in  all  the  features- of  this  work,  and  are  already 
able  to  show  very  interesting  and  creditable  original  work  on  their 
part. 

It  is  diflflcult  to  give  any  adequate  idea  of  a  system  in  the  com- 
pass of  an  article  lilce  this,  for  the  most  part  unillustrated. 

I  will  give  here  what  may  prove  of  interest,  the  expense  of  one 
full  set  of  tools,  and  a  table  showing  the  cost  of  our  first  year's 
experimental  work  in  one  of  the  school  buildings  in  this  city. 

Expense  of  tools:  pencil,  $0.02;  rule,  $0.02;  knife,  $0.35; 
dividers,  $0.08;  hammer,  $0.10;  screw  driver,  $0.08;  gimlet, 
$0.06  ;  gauge,  $0.12  ;  try  square,  $0.17  ;  total,  $1.00. 

Cost  of  first  year's  work  in  a  building  containing  nine  rooms, 
averaging  fifty  pupils  each,  or  a  total  of  four  hundred  and  fifty 
pupils  (time,  two  periods  per  week  of  thirty  minutes  each)  :  50 
knives,  at  $0.35,  $17.50;  100  pencils,  at  $0.02,  $2.00;  50  rules, 
at  $0.02,  $1.00;  16,000  tablets,  at  $4.50  per  thousand,  $72.00; 
1  set  plates,  entire  course,  $5.00  ;  total,  $97.50. 

The  above  figures  do  not  include,  as  will  be  observed,  the  teach- 
ing of  the  teachers.  Where  it  can  be  afforded  there  may  well  be  a 
special  teacher  ;  but  there  is  nothing  in  the  nature  of  the  work  to 
prevent  its  being  administered,  as  is  being  done  here,  by  the 
regular  teachers,  and  in  many  ways  it  will  prove  helpful  to  them 
in  general  teaching  and  discipline.  The  whole  system  is  now  in 
such  shape  that  the  expense  of  equipping  teachers  accustomed  to 
drawing  and  to  dictating  other  lessons  need  not  be  large. 

Northampton,  Mass.,  March  15,  1893. 


INDUSTBIAL   EDUOATION^.  173 


Appendix    I. 


MANUAL    TRAINING    IN    THE    PUBLIC    SCHOOLS     OF    FALL 
RIVER,  WALTHAM,  SALEM  AND   SPRLNGFIELD. 

B.  M.  C.  DuRFEE  High  School,  Fall  River,  Mass. 
By  "WILLIAM  CONNELL,  Superintendent  of  Schools. 


The  manual  training  course  forms  one  of  the  regular  four-year 
courses  of  the  B.  M.  C.  Durfee  High  School,  and  consists  of  a 
combination  of  mathematics,  sciences,  modern  languages,  shop 
work  and  drawing. 

The  shop  and  drawing  room  are  located  on  the  ground  floor  of 
the  high-school  building. 

The  equipment  of  the  shop  is  as  follows  :  — 

For  Wood-working. 

1.  Twenty-one  benches,  each  one  supplied  with  a  "  quick-grip" 
patent  vise,  and  four  lockers  to  hold  work  and  aprons.  Tool 
drawers  or  closets  are  built  in  each  bench. 

Each  bench  is  supplied  with  a  set  of  hand-tools,  as  follows  : 
fifteen-inch  jack  plane,  eight-inch  smooth  plane,  six-inch  block 
plane,  twenty-inch  cross-cut  saw,  twenty-four-inch  rip  saw,  ten- 
inch  back  saw,  six  chisels,  three  gouges,  large  and  small  try 
squares,  screw  driver,  brace  and  bits,  marking  gauge,  dividers, 
bevel,  two-foot  rule,  brad  awls,  mallet,  hammer,  oil  stone,  oil  can 
and  bench  brush.  Several  twenty-two-inch  jointer  planes,  draw 
knives,  large  steel  squares  and  straight  edges  are  distributed 
among  the  benches,  and  a  number  of  rasps,  bits,  compass  saws, 
carving  tools,  matching  and  rebating  planes,  together  with  nails, 
screws,  glue,  sand-paper,  etc.,  are  supplied  to  classes  as  needed. 

2.  Twelve  speed  lathes,  ten  and  one-fourth  inch  swing  by 
twenty-two  inclies  to  twenty-four  inches  between  centres  are  for 
wood  turning.     These  lathes  are  mounted  on  benches,  which  are 


174  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

built  with  drawers  for  holding  tools,  and  closets  for  work  and  shop 
clothes.  Each  lathe  is  supplied  with  large  and  small  face  plates, 
screw  chuck,  spur  and  cone  centres,  long  and  short  T  rests,  rule, 
calipers,  mallet,  four  turner's  gouges,  three  chisels,  parting  tool, 
boring  tool  and  square-nose  chisel. 

3.  Large  band-saw  machine,  for  cutting  stock  to  convenient 
sizes  and  for  practice  in  sawing  curved  forms. 

For  Iron  Working. 

Two  fourteen-inch  screw-cutting  engine  lathes,  five-foot  bed  ; 
two  fourteen-inch  plain  engine  lathes  with  five-foot  bed  ;  two 
thirteen-inch  hand-lathes,  with  five-foot  bed,  for  filing,  polishing, 
etc.  ;  one  iron-planing  machine,  sixteen  inches  by  fourteen  inches, 
with  five-and-one-half-foot  bed  ;  one  emery  grinder  and  one  grind- 
stone ;  twenty-seven  feet  of  bench-room,  provided  with  six  Parker 
vises.  Each  engine  lathe  has  a  set  of  lathe  tools,  and  there  are 
chucks  of  various  sizes,  both  universal  and  independent.  For 
bench  work  there  is  an  assortment  of  hammers,  chisels,  files, 
scratch  awls,  punches  and  dividers,  and  also  sets  of  reamers,  twist 
drills,  arbors,  taps  and  die  plates,  scales  of  various  sizes  and 
divisions,  machinist's  steel  squares,  levels,  protractor,  screw 
gauges,  chuck  drills  and  hand  tools  for  metal  turning.  Power  to 
drive  the  machines  is  furnished  by  a  seven-and-a-half  horse-power 
Sprague  electric  motor. 

The  course  of  work  at  present  is  as  follows  :  — 

Freshman  Year. 

Algebra,  English,  physiology  and  physical  geography ;  shop 
work  :  bench  exercises  in  wood.  Divisions  of  two-foot  rule  ;  how 
to  measure  correctly  and  "layoff"  dimensions  with  knife  and 
pencil.  Explanation  of  jack  and  smooth  plane  ;  how  to  sharpen, 
adjust  and  use  the  planes.  Planing  a  true  surface.  Use  of  try 
square.  Planing  one  side  of  stock  "  square"  with  face  side.  Use 
of  marking  gauge.  Planing  to  gauge  line,  and  to  given  dimen- 
sion. Explanation  of  cross-cut  and  rip  saw  teeth.  How  to  use 
the  saw  correctly.  Sawing  giveu  length,  across  grain  and  with  the 
object  of  sawing  square  with  face  side,  each  sawing  being  tested 
with  try  square  to  note  inaccuracies.  Sawing  with  back  saw  to 
knife  line,  as  in  joining.     Use  of  block  plane  on  end  grain. 

The  planing  and  sawing  exercises  introduce  the  rule,  dividers, 
marking  gauge,  bevel  and  try  square,  and  separate  exercises  in 
the  use  of  these  "  laying  out"  tools  ai'e  given  when  necessary,  to 
impress  from  the  start  the  necessity  of  clean,  accurate  laying  down 
of  working  lines.     The  class  then  learns  to  construct,  on  a  smooth 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  175 

piece  of  wood,  angles  of  90°,  60%  30°,  45°,  15°  and  75°,  and  the 
"angle  board"  is  used  in  performing  succeeding  exercises  when 
bevel  lines  are  required.  A  square  frame  is  next  made,  which 
gives  practice  in  sawing  the  half-lap  joints  with  back  saw,  and 
shows  tne  importance  of  each  stroke  when  several  pieces  are  to 
form  a  whole. 

As  an  application  of  planing  and  sawing  exercises,  a  "mitre 
box"  is  made,  and  its  accuracy  tested  by  sawing  in  it  the 
joints  for  a  mitred  frame.  Then  follows  an  exercise  in  boring 
holes  square  with  face  side  of  block,  chamfering  edges  with  block 
plane,  paring  with  chisels,  producing  a  semi-circular  end  from 
square  end  of  board,  chamfers  of  various  shapes  with  chisel,  cut- 
ting flutings  with  gouges,  making  gain  joints,  square  and  oblique 
halvings,  mortise  and  tenon  joints,  as  through,  blind,  open,  relish, 
rafter,  keyed  and  dovetailing.  A  piece  of  framework  combining 
several  of  these  joints  is  next  made,  and  the  course  is  completed 
by  making  a  finished  article,  as  a  blacking  box  or  bookcase,  which 
serves  to  apply  the  different  principles  and  processes  of  the  year's 
work  to  a  piece  of  construction. 

Every  exercise  is  made  from  a  scale  blue  print,  and  the  class  is 
kept  together  on  the  same  exercise,  so  that  work  pi'ogresses 
systematically.  The  freshman  class  has  four  periods  of  fifty 
minutes  each  per  week. 

Sophomore  Year. 

Plane  geometry,  English,  botany  and  zoology ;  shop  work ; 
mechanical  drawing.  The  shop  work  is  wood  turning.  Names  of 
parts  of  speed  lathe,  and  manipulation  in  using  and  mounting 
work  for  turning.  Straight  cylinders  with  gouge,  finishing  cut 
with  skew  chisel.  Difference  between  scraping  and  cutting. 
Convex  curve.  Concave  curve.  Reverse  curve.  Square  shoulder. 
Taper  cylinder.  Rounding  square  corner.  Beading.  Balls. 
Scallops.  Fitting  plug  to  holes  of  various  diameters  ;  combina- 
tions of  these  elemental  forms  in  turning  a  baluster,  post  and 
a  spindle,  which  introduces  duplication  of  shapes  on  each  side  of 
a  centre.  Face  plate  and  chuck  work,  rosette,  hollow  stepped 
cylinder,  box  and  cover,  goblet,  napkin  ring,  and  piece  of  con- 
struction in  the  form  of  a  wall  towel  rack  and  small  centre  stand, 
which  apply  nearly  all  of  the  principles  and  processes  of  the  year's 
work. 

The  work  is  done  entirely  from  blue  prints,  and  conducted  as 
class  work. 

The  mechanical  drawing  of  this  year  consists  of :  a  sheet  to 
acquire  use  of  instruments    in   drawing   horizontal,  vertical   and 


176  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

oblique  lines,  intersecting  with  clean-cut  junctions,  circles  and 
compound  lines  formed  of  tangent  straight  and  circular  lines  and 
of  tangent  circular  arcs  ;  three  sheets  of  geometrical  constructions, 
which  are  given  mainly  for  practice  in  accurate  lining  and  compass 
work  ;  a  sheet  of  shade-lining  examples. 

The  theory  of  orthographic  projections  is  explained  by  lectures 
and  studied  by  the  aid  of  paper  planes,  and  eight  or  nine  sheets 
are  drawn,  solving  problems  regarding  the  rectangular,  triangular 
and  hexagonal  prism  and  pyramid,  the  cylinder  and  the  cone,  with 
oblique  pi'ojections,  development  and  intersections  of  same  and 
sectional  views.  Isometric  drawing  is  then  taken  up,  and  one  or 
two  sheets,  illustrating  the  application  of  projections  to  simple 
parts  of  machines,  are  drawn,  some  detail  of  such  object  being 
put  into  isometric. 

The  equipment  for  drawing  consists  of  sixteen  drawing  trestles, 
with  drawer  and  racks  on  the  sides  to  hold  boards  ;  T  squares  and 
boards,  triangles,  scales ;  dividers  with  pen,  pencil  and  needle 
point;  spring-bow  pencils  and  bow  pens,  ruling  pens,  etc.,  suffi- 
cient for  sixteen  boys  in  a  class. 

The  sophomores  work  four  periods  of  fifty  minutes  each  per 
week  in  the  shop,  and  the  same  length  of  time  in  drawing  room. 

Junior  Year. 
Solid  geometry  and  trigonometry,  French  or  German,  physics, 
shop  work,  mechanical  drawing.  The  shop  work  of  this  year  is 
work  in  metal,  and  consists  of  the  following  exercises  :  study 
of  construction  and  manipulation  of  engine  lathe  and  planing 
machine. 

1.  Turning  straight  cylinder,  introducing  centring,  centre 
drilling,  countersinking,  squaring  ends,  roughing  and  finishing 
cuts,  calipering,  and  filing  and  polishing  in  speed  lathe. 

2.  Stepped  cylinder,  additional  practice  in  turning  to  size  and 
squaring  shoulders. 

3.  Taper  turning,  and  hand-tooling  curves. 

4.  Screw  cutting,  right  and  left  hand  thread  on  ends  of  same 
stock  piece. 

5.  Fitting  bolt  to  hole  in  a  collar,  which  has  first  been  twist 
drilled  and  reamed  to  given  size,  and  then  turned  on  an  arbor  to 
size  and  shape  of  drawing. 

G.  Cutting  thread  of  standard  size  on  bolt,  fitting  nut  to  same, 
first  tapping  the  nut,  and  filing  to  hexagon  shape  the  bolt  head 
and  the  nut,  and  polishing  the  same. 

7.  "  Chucking"  a  five  and  one-half  inch  pulley,  chuck  drilling 
tii^-  hub,  turning  rim  and  hub  to  size  and  filing. 


iNDUSTEiAL  educatio:n'.  177 

8.  Making  a  ball  handle,  introducing  the  roughing  out  of 
curves  in  engine  lathe,  free-hand,  and  the  hand-tooling  of  same 
to  a  finish  in  speed  lathe  ;  the  fitting  of  two  parts  of  handle  by 
die  stock  and  tap. 

9.  Cutting  outside  and  inside  V  thread  on  one  end  of  plug  and 
cap,  and  outside  and  inside  square  thread  on  other  end  of  plug 
and  ring  ;  boring  tool. 

10.  Planing-machine  exercise  :  planing  block  square  all  over, 
planing  out  square  groove,  planing  out  45°  V  groove. 

11.  Chipping  and  filing  bevel-edge,  chipping  and  filing  a  rectan- 
gular hole  from  bored  hole. 

12.  Construction  of  a  jack  screw. 

All  work  is  done  from  blue  prints.  "While  it  is  not  possible  to 
keep  the  class  together,  or  take  up  these  exercises  always  in  order 
named,  instructions  are  given  to  the  class  as  a  whole,  and  notes 
are  taken  down,  so  that  the  instruction  may  be  as  much  systema- 
tized as  possible.  Much  individual  instruction  and  help  must  of 
course  be  given  where  such  slight  differences  of  shape  and  adjust- 
ment of  tools  cause  such  different  results. 

The  di'awing  of  this  year  consists  in  making  working  drawings 
of  details  of  machines.  Free-hand  sketches  are  made  first,  and 
dimensioned,  and  these  sketches  are  worked  up  into  scale  drawings 
with  dimensions.  The  subjects  are  drawn  partly  from  the  object, 
partly  from  sketches  and  explanations  of  the  instructor.  Among 
the  drawings  thus  executed  may  be  mentioned  gear  blank,  split 
pulley,  bolts  and  screw  threads,  eccentric  and  strap,  connecting 
rod  with  all  details  drawn  separately,  from  which  the  class  were  to 
construct,  without  help,  an  assembly  drawing,  head  stock,  tail 
stock,  etc.  The  drawings  ai'e  made  to  various  scales,  and  sections 
are  drawn,  and  one  view  obtained  from  others  given,  to  test  the 
ability  of  the  pupil  to  grasp  clearly  the  correct  appearance  of  the 
object  which  he  is  representing. 

The  juniors  work  in  shop  four  periods  of  fifty  minutes  each  per 
week,  and  in  drawing  room  three  periods  of  fifty  minutes  each 
per  week. 

Senior  Year. 

Chemistry,  English,  French  or  German,  shop  work,  drawing. 
The  shop  work  and  drawing  of  this  year  consist  at  present  of  the 
designing,  drawing  and  construction  of  au  article  of  cabinet  work. 
This  work  is  made  original  as  far  as  possible,  and  is  intended  to 
give  some  chance  for  individual  judgment  in  shaping  and  sizing 
of  parts,  and  in  joining  together  of  various  portions  of  a  finished 
article.  Among  the  projects  thus  made  may  be  mentioned  writing 
desks,  tables,  cabinet  book  case,  hall  stand,  coin  cabinet,  etc. 


178  MANUAL   TRAINING   AND 

The  drawing  of  this  year  consists,  first,  of  the  making  of  the 
necessary  drawing  for  the  before-mentioned  cabinet  project,  and 
after  that  some  finislied  drawing  of  a  machine  or  engine  is  made, 
this  being  determined  by  the  amount  of  time  available. 

The  senior  class  works  four  periods  a  week  in  shop,  and  in 
drawing  room  two  periods  a  week. 


School  at  Waltham,  Mass. 
By  WM.  F.  JARVIS,  Chairman  Committee  on  Manual  Training. 

AValtham,  Mass.,  April  12,  1893. 

Edwin  P.  Seaver. 

Dear  Sir: — Yours  of  March  31  to  Mr.  "NYhittemore  has  been 
referred  to  me  for  reply. 

Our  present  system  of  manual  training  was  established  in  1891, 
and  is  a  modification  of  sloyd.  Pupils  are  admitted  from  the 
seventh,  eighth  and  ninth  grades  of  the  grammar  school,  and  the 
first  two  years  of  the  high  school,  the  latter  being  a  special  course 
provided  for  this  department. 

We  have  a  regular  graded  system  for  the  manual  work,  com- 
mencing with  simple  forms  of  models,  progressing  through  those 
more  difficult,  including  exercises  in  wood  turning,  carving  and 
pattern  making,  to  iron  work  (forging,  welding,  tempering  and 
chipping  and  filing) .  Each  exercise  is  embodied  in  a  model  that  is 
more  or  less  familiar  to  the  pupil,  there  being  no  purely  exercise 
work  upon  abstract  forms.  By  this  means  pupils  get  continuous 
review  work,  as  the  advanced  models  combine  a  variety  of  old  with 
new  exercises.  Each  model  is  made  from  a  drawing  done  by  the 
pupil,  at  present  under  the  direction  of  the  instructor  of  manual 
training,  except  those  in  the  iron  department,  which  are  made  from 
blue  prints.  It  is  intended  that  the  models  shall  occupy  the  time 
of  the  pupils  for  five  years,  working  according  to  the  present 
schedule,  which  is  as  follows :  boys  of  the  seventh  and  eighth 
grades  work  one  period  of  two  hours  a  week  ;  those  of  the  ninth 
grade,  two  periods  of  two  hours  each  a  week.  The  high  school 
class  work  two  hours  a  day.  Below  is  the  curriculum  of  this 
department :  — ■ 

First  and  Second  Years. 
Seventh  and  eighth  grades,  —  one  period  a  week.     Elementary 
work  In  wood  :  marking,  sawing,  squaring,  nailing,  filing,  chisel- 
ling, gluing,  sand-papering,  etc.     Uses  of  tools  ;  drawing. 


rN^DUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  179 


Third   Year. 
Ninth  grade,  — two  periods  a  week.     Advanced  work  iu  wood  : 
boring,  planing,  bevelling,  carving,  grooving,  dovetailing,  draw- 
ing. 

Fourth   Year. 

First  Half. — High  school, — two  hours  a  day.  Academic 
studies :  English,  three  times  a  week ;  geometry,  four  times  a 
week ;  physics,  four  times  a  week ;  drawing.  Manual  work : 
joint  making,  wood  turning,  staining,  varnishing,  grinding  of 
tools,  lectures  on  woods. 

Second  Half.  —  Academic  studies  :  English,  three  times  a  week  ; 
civics,  four  times  a  week  ;  physics,  four  times  a  week  ;  drawing. 
Manual  work  :  scraping  and  polishing,  carving,  saw  filing,  lectures 
on  woods  and  their  uses,  chipping  and  filing  metals. 


Fifth  Year. 

First  Half.  —  High  school,  —  two  hours  a  day.  Academic 
studies  :  English,  three  times  a  week  ;  algebra,  four  times  a  week  ; 
geometry,  four  times  a  week  ;  chemistry,  four  times  a  week  ;  draw- 
ing. Manual  work :  advanced  wood-working,  forging,  welding 
and  tempering,  soldering  and  brazing,  lectures  on  metals  and  their 
uses. 

Second  Half.  — Academic  studies  :  English,  three  times  a  week  ; 
algebra,  four  times  a  week ;  geometry,  four  times  a  week ;  draw- 
ing. Manual  work :  pattern  making,  drilling  and  chipping  and 
filing  of  metals. 

The  classes  are  formed  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  from 
volunteers,  but,  having  joined  a  class,  the  pupil  is  required  to  give 
regular  attendance.  A  class  of  girls  from  the  high  school  was 
formed  last  September,  and  much  interest  is  manifested  by  them. 
The  whole  number  of  pupils  in  this  school  is  one  hundred  and  fifty- 
nine  ;  the  per  cent,  of  attendance  is  ninety-four. 

The  equipment  for  the  work  of  the  three  grammar  grades  is  as 
follows :  twenty-four  benches,  each  of  which  is  supplied  with  a 
knife,  try  square,  marking  gauge,  wooden  mallet,  twenty-four 
inch  rule,  a  smoothing  and  block  plane  and  pencil.  In  addition 
to  these  tools  a  case  is  provided  in  the  room  containing  every 
other  tool  that  may  be  required  in  the  work,  to  be  used  in  common 
by  the  pupils.  Inasmuch  as  the  different  classes  come  at  different 
times,  each  bench  is  used  by  six  or  seven  boys  in  the  course  of  a 


180  MAIS^UAL    TEAINING   AND 

week,  but  each  boy  is  responsible  for  the  conditiou  of  his  bench 
and  tools  when  he  has  finished  his  day's  work.  Two  hundred 
closed  lockers  are  provided,  to  enable  the  boys  to  keep  their 
unfinished  work  and  the  drawings  in  a  neat  condition. 

The  cost  of  the  foregoing  is:  for  twenty-four  benches,  $312; 
tools,  $150  ;  lockers,  $150  ;  tool  cabinet,  $25  ;  total,  $637. 

For  the  work  in  the  advanced  department  there  are  provided  : 
fifteen  benches,  at  a  cost  of  $195  ;  five  speed  lathes,  $375  ;  one- 
fifth  horse-power  electric  motor,  $325  ;  four  forges,  $60  ;  four 
anvils,  $48  ;  ten  vises,  $60  ;  tools,  $250  ;  total,  $1,313. 

The  cost  of  maintaining  the  school,  with  two  instructors,  is 
about  $2,500  per  annum. 

Boys  are  required  to  provide  themselves  with  a  uniform  working 
suit,  and  to  conduct  themselves  upon  general  principles  of  good 
order. 

Benches  and  suitable  tools  for  carving  are  among  the  equipment, 
as  well  as  tool  rooms  and  model  rooms  in  each  department. 


School  at  Salem,  Mass. 
By  W.  a.  MOWE.Y,  Superintexdext  oe  Schools. 

Salem,  April  6,  1893. 
Ed^vin  p.  Seaver,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Boston. 

My  Dear  Sir  ;  — In  reply  to  yours  of  the  3d  I  beg  to  say, — 
Salem  has  for  some  time  past  given  a  minimum  of  attention  to  the 
subject  of  manual  training  in  connection  with  her  public  schools. 
She  has : — 

1.  The  Curwen  Manual  Training  School,  for  instruction  in  the 
use  of  tools  in  wood-working.  The  course  is  for  one  year,  and 
the  pupils  are  from  the  grammar  schools.  There  are  ten  classes 
of  twelve  boys  each.  They  all  have  one  lesson  —  a  half  day's 
session  —  per  week. 

2.  The  Cooking  School,  for  girls.  This  gives  instruction  in 
cooking  to  five  classes  of  sixteen  each,  a  half-day  lesson  each  week. 
These  pupils  are  from  the  upper  grades  of  the  grammar  schools. 

8.  During  the  winter,  November  till  March,  the  evening  draiving 
schools  (one  for  free-hand  and  one  for  mechanical  drawing). 
These  schools  are  principally  for  those  outside  of  the  day  schools. 

4.  Drawing  in  the  public  day  schools. 

This  is  as  far  as  the  city  has  gone  in  manual  training,  and  I  see 
no  disposition  to  go  further  at  present. 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION.  181 

Springfield  Manual  Training  School. 
By  GEORGE  B.  KILBON,  Principal. 

WJiat  has  been  Done. 

In  1886  an  appropriation  of  $1,000  was  made,  for  an  experi- 
ment ;  $500  of  it  was  expended  in  purchasing  an  equipment  of 
twelve  sets  of  tools,  and  the  remaining  $500  in  salary,  the  school 
sessions  continuing  as  long  as  the  money  lasted.  Since  then  the 
appropriations  have  been  made  as  follows:  in  1887,  $3,000;  in 
1888,  $3,000  ;  in  1889,  $4,000  ;  in  1890,  $4,000  ;  in  1891,  $4,500  ; 
in  1892,  $4,500.  Of  these  sums,  an  average  of  $500  has  been 
expended  yearly  in  making  additions  to  the  equipment,  which  is 
now  valued  at  $3,500,  and  consists  of  eighteen  wood-working 
benches  and  tools,  twelve  wood-turning  lathes  and  tools,  three 
grindstones,  one  scroll  saw,  twelve  molding  troughs  and  tools, 
five  forges,  and  tools  with  blower  and  exhauster  large  enough  for 
twelve  two-engine  lathes,  one  planer,  one  drill  press,  seven  vises 
for  iron  filing,  with  tools  and  a  fifteen  horse-power  electromotor. 

The  room  occupied  is  the  fii'st  floor  and  the  basement  of  a  build- 
ing forty-seven  feet  by  seventy-three  feet ;  three  teachers  are 
employed. 

The  work  is  organized  in  two  departments  ;  namely,  high  school 
and  senior  grammar.  A  three-years  course  is  provided  for  the 
high  school,  consisting  of  one  and  a  balf  hours'  lessons  each  after- 
noon in  joinery,  wood  turning,  carving,  pattern  making,  molding 
and  plaster  casting,  forging,  iron  filing,  planing  and  turning,  and 
machine  buildicg.  During  the  three  years  the  students  receive 
drawing  lessons  three-quarters  of  an  hour  each  forenoon.  The 
work  is  voluntary,  and  students  are  admitted  from  all  high-school 
courses. 

In  the  senior  grammar  department  lessons  are  given  (at  the 
manual  training  building)  to  the  ninth  grade  one  and  a  half  hours 
each  week  in  the  forenoon,  and  to  the  eighth  grade  one  and  a  half 
hours  each  fortnight,  from  4.30  to  6,  afternoons.  These  lessons 
are  in  elementary  wood-work,  on  the  American  system  of  problems 
in  the  beginning,  followed  by  the  making  of  articles.  All  articles 
regularly  made  are  previously  drawn  at  the  ordinary  school-room 
under  the  direction  of  the  drawing  supervisor.  Various  articles  of 
equipment  needed  in  the  school  have  also  been  made  by  the  pupils. 

Manual  training  is  also  provided  for  grades  six  and  seven  by 
means  of  knife  work.  This  is  done  in  the  ordinary  school-room 
and  by  the  ordinary  teacher,  desks  being  protected  by  remov- 
able covers.     Lessons  are  three-quarters  of  an  hour  each  week. 


182  MANUAL   TRAINING   AND 

Teachers  prepare  themselves  by  attending  the  manual  training 
school  one  and  a  half  hours  each  week. 

The  manual  training  of  the  primary  grades  I.,  II.  and  III.  con- 
sists of  clay  modelling,  paper  folding,  sewing  on  pricked  cards, 
and  cutting  and  pasting  colored  papers  to  illustrate  principles  of 
design. 

Construction  in  card-board  commences  in  grade  III.,  and  is  con- 
tinued through  grade  VII.,  as  is  the  making  of  designs  in  colored 
paper. 

Girls  have  sewing  in  grades  IV.,  V.,  VI.  and  VII.,  and  cooking 
in  grade  VII.  The  sewing  in  grades  IV.,  V.  and  VI.  is  in  the 
form  of  elementary  problems  ;  in  grade  VII.  it  is  in  garment  mak- 
ing. Girls  measure  a  model  figure,  draw  the  patterns  and  cut 
them,  then  from  the  patterns  cut  garments  and  make  them. 

What  is  Proposed. 

For  boys,  a  continual  system  of  manual  training  from  the  first 
school  year  to  and  through  the  third  high-school  year,  consisting 
of  clay  modelling,  paper  cutting  and  construction  in  card-board, 
using  the  rule  with  accuracy,  in  the  first  four  years  and  onward  ; 
knife  work  in  the  fifth,  sixth  and  seventh  years  ;  elementary  wood- 
work with  a  full  complement  of  tools  in  the  eighth  and  ninth 
years  ;  and  an  extension  of  the  room  and  equipment  at  the  manual 
training  school  sufficient  to  give  lessons  to  classes  of  twenty  in 
the  above-mentioned  high-school  branches,  coupled  with  a  recog- 
nition of  manual  training  as  a  part  of  the  regular  high-school 
work. 

For  girls,  a  continuous  system,  as  for  boys,  in  clay  modelling, 
paper  cutting  and  card-board  construction ;  with  sewing  from 
grades  V.  to  VII.,  and  cooking  in  grades  VII.  and  VIII.  and  in 
the  high-school  junior  year.  The  high-school  cooking  will  be  in 
connection  with  physics  and  chemistry. 


A  pamphlet,  published  by  the  school  committee  of  Springfield, 
and  giving  a  full  account  of  the  Springfield  Manual  Training 
School,  its  equipment  and  its  exercises,  is  here  reprinted,  with 
the  omission  of  some  portions  not  necessary  to  our  present  pur- 
pose. —  The  Commissioners. 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  183 

A  coiirse  of  weekly  lessons  covering  one  year  has  been  established 
for  the  ninth  grammar  grade,  and  a  course  of  daily  lessons  covering 
three  years  for  the  high  school. 

Six  classes  have  been  organized  this  year  from  eighth  grammar 
grades,  averaging  tifteen  pupils  to  each  class.  Three  of  these  classes 
receive  lessons  Monday,  Tuesday  and  Thursday  of  one  week,  from  4.30 
to  5.45  P.M.,  and  the  remaining  three  classes  on  the  following  week, 
providing  one  lesson  a  fortnight  for  each  class.  Their  lessons  are  the 
same  as  those  hitherto  given  to  the  ninth  grade. 

On  Wednesday  of  each  week,  at  the  above  hour,  a  class  of  high-school 
girls  receive  a  lesson  in  general  tool  work,  and  on  Friday  a  class  of 
teachers  in  knife  work. 

Knife  Work. 

For  four  years  there  has  been  an  interesting  experiment  in  knife  work 
in  progress  at  the  Hooker  Grammar  School  in  grades  five  to  seven, 
inclusive,  and  during  the  last  two  years  at  the  Tapley  School.  Teachers 
who  give  this  instruction  take  lessons  prej)aratory  thereto  at  the  Manual 
Training  School. 

The  knife  is  the  only  cutting  tool  used.  Problems  for  this  work  were 
arranged  by  the  principal  of  the  Manual  Training  School,  and  those  lor 
the  fifth  grade,  which  are  chiefly  geometric  forms  cut  from  thin  wood, 
appear  in  the  cuts  immediately  following. 

Minute  descriptions  regarding  their  construction  are  published  by  the 
Milton  Bradley  Company  of  this  city,  who  also  supply  the  material. 

The  work  is  done  in  the  ordinary  school-room  on  the  ordinary  school 
desks,  which  are  protected  from  injury  by  a  temj)orary  cover  of  one- 
half  inch  pine. 


18i 


MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 


Knife  Work. 




• 

■ 

1 

rs 


^ 

~^ 

^-' 

1 

X 

y 

^, 

^ 

INDUSTEIAL   EDUCATION". 


185 


Knife  Work. 


186 


MAJ!^UAL   TEAIN'ING   AND 


Knife  Work. 


23 

24                                       25 

27 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION. 


187 


Knife  Work. 


7 

\ 

"^ 

"1 

r 

7 

7 

f" 

f 

/ 

/ 

/ 

- 

L 

\ 

1 

t 

V 

/ 

^ 

J 

\ 

\ 

\ 

™ 

A 

™- 

[\ 

/ 

L 

V 

„  -^ 

L 

\| 

7 

■"\ 

r 

1 

"1 

\ 

"\ 

/I 

1 

™ 

\\ 

/ 

^ 

l~ 

\  \ 

\ 

' 

/ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

V 

, 

\^ 

_\ 

\ 

V 

/ 

\ 

^i_ 

I 

. 

\ 

/ 

\_[\ 

^ 

L 

/ 

i_ 

\ 

/ 

j_\ 

— 

l_ 

_ 

_ 

__ 

A 


S 


188  MANUAL    TKALNINa  AND 


Equipment. 

The  wood-Avorking  equipment  of  the  Manual  Training  School  consists 
of  eighteen  benches,  eighteen  sets  of  tools,  three  hundred  and  fifty-two 
drawers  for  holding  work  and  forty  drawers  for  liolding  prepared  ma- 
terial, costing  $750.  Also,  twelve  wood-turning  lathes,  costing  $600 ; 
three  grindstones,  costing  $50 ;  the  necessary  shafting,  pulleys  and 
belts,  $150. 

The  school  is  also  furnished  Avith  twenty-four  sets  of  carving  tools, 
each  set  being  arranged  in  a  portable  tray,  and  with  a  cabinet  to  hold 
the  trays.  Cost  of  carving  equipments,  $205.  Its  moulding  equipment 
consists  of  twelve  troughs  and  tools,  costing  $215.  Calcined  plaster  is 
used  for  pouring. 

The  iron  equipment  consists  of  two  engine  lathes,  one  planer,  one 
drill  press,  one  forge,  four  iron  vises  and  tools,  costing  $1,600.  The  six 
horse-power  Shipman  engine  which  has  hitherto  furnished  pov.'er  for 
the  school  was  exchanged  in  December,  1891,  for  a  fifteen  horse-i^ower 
electromotor,  manufactured  by  the  Elektron  Manufacturing  Company 
of  this  cit3^ 

The  benches  for  wood-working  are  4}  ft.  long  x  2  ft.  wide  x  34  in. 
high.  Pupils  of  small  stature  are  accommodated  by  movable  platforms. 
The  bench  tops  should  be  two  or  three  inches  above  the  Avrist  when  the 
pupil  stands  erect.  Benches  are  arranged  in  rows  about  three  feet  apart 
each  way. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  tools  with  which  each  bench  is  supplied : 
bevel,  6  in ;  bit  brace  ;  bits,  auger,  i,  f,  |  in. ;  bits,  drill,  g^^,  g',  in. ;  brad 
awls  in  handle  ;  chisels,  firmer,  |,"^,  i,  1  in. ;  comitersink  ;  dividers  with 
pencil ;  gauge  ;  gouge,  J  in.  inside,  ground  ;  gouge,  |  in.  outside,  ground  : 
hammer,  claw ;  hammer,  peen ;  hand  screw,  10  in. ;  knife  with  two 
blades  ;  mallet ;  oil  stone  ;  oil  can  ;  one  lead  pencil,  medium  ;  one  very 
hard ;  plane,  the  Bailey  iron  smooth,  8  in. ;  plane,  the  Bailey  iron  block, 
6  in. ;  plane,  v^^ood  smooth,  8  in. ;  pliers ;  rule,  12  in.,  solid  boxwood ; 
saw,  16  in.,  panel,  slitting;  saw,  16  in.,  panel,  cutting-off;  saw,  10  in., 
back;  saw  block;  screw  driver,  3  in.;  try  square,  4  in.;  dust  pan; 
broom  for  floor ;  brush  for  bench  top  ;  whisk  broom  for  clothing. 

The  school  is  further  supplied  with  eight  22  in.  iron  Bailey  jointers, 
six  framing  squares,  and  two  2G  in.  hand  saws. 

Each  bench  is  provided  with  a  vise  at  the  left-hand  end,  and  a  shove- 
plane  block  at  the  right.  (See  figures  following.)  On  or  about  each 
bench  a  place  is  provided  for  each  tool  (see  right  and  left  elevations, 
next  page,  en  which  the  tools  there  kept  are  shown  in  position).  The 
phototypes  from  which  tliese  figures  are  printed  were  produced  from 
scale  drawings  of  the  bench  made  by  pupils,  and  are  one-sixteenth  of 
full  size. 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION. 


189 


190  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

The  three  hundred  and  fifty-two  drawers  are  each  21  in.  long  x  10 
in.  wide  x  7-^-  in.  deep,  inside  measure,  and  are  inclosed  in  cupboards, 
each  6  ft.  high  x  4  ft.  5  in.  wide  x  2  ft.  deep,  each  cupboard  containing 
thirty-two  drawers.    Each  pupil  has  a  drawer  for  his  exclusive  use. 

Pupils  work  in  classes  not  exceeding  eighteen,  one  and  one-half  hours 
constituting  a  lesson. 

The  twelve  lathes  for  wood-turning  are  9  in.  swing,  six  of  them  3^-  ft. 
bed  and  six  4  ft.  bed,  and  were  made  by  F.  E.  Reed  of  Worcester,  Mass. 
Each  lathe  is  pro\'ided  Avith  head  and  tail  centres,  screw  face  plate  4  in. 
diameter,  plain  tliee  plate  6  in.  diameter,  5  in.  rest,  10  in.  rest,  oiler,  oil 
stone,  slip  stone  and  the  following  tools :  1  in.  gouge,  ground  straight 
across  the  end,  for  roughing ;  |  in.  gouge,  round  end ;  |  in.  gouge,  romad 
end ;  1  in.  chisel,  skew  edge ;  |  in.  chisel,  round  edge ;  |  in.  chisel, 
skew  edge  ;  J  iu.  chisel,  straight  edge ;  i  in.  chisel,  for  parting  ;  mallet ; 
10  m.  calipers ;  7  in.  dividers ;  rule  and  lead  pencil ;  dust  brush  and 
pan. 

The  carving  equipment  of  twenty-four  sets  was  purchased  of  '\\Tiite, 
Van  Glahn  &  Co.,  New  York,  and  Goodnow  &  Wightman,  Boston. 
It  comprises  seventeen  tools  in  each  set,  designated  in  J.  B.  Addis' 
catalogue  as  follows :  i  in..  No.  1 ;  i  in.,  No.  1 ;  |  in.,  No.  2  ;  |  in,,  No.  3  ; 
I  in.,  No.  4 ;  |  in.,  No.  5  ;  Jg  in..  No.  5  ;  l  in.,  No.  7  ;  |-  in..  No.  7  ;  ^'^g  in.. 
No.  9  ;  I  in..  No.  9  ;  ^%  in.,  No.  9  ;  |  in.,  No.  11 ;  i  in..  No.  11 ;  ^\  ii^-> 
No.  11;  \  in.,  No.  39;  |  in.,  No.  39.  Also  a  pencil  gauge,  and  two 
stamps,  one  I  in.  square,  and  one  I  x  |  in.,  both  of  which  were  made  by 
the  pupils.    Pupils  also  made  octagonal  handles  for  the  above  tools. 

The  drawing  room  is  supplied  with  tvfenty-four  wooden  tables  of 
original  design,  tv/enty-four  T  squares,  twenty-four  pairs  of  triangles, 
fifty  drawing  boards,  with  a  rack  to  hold  them,  and  a  case  of  trays  to 
store  drawings,  also  of  original  design.  Pupils  furnish  their  own  draw- 
ing instruments.  Each  table  is  36  in.  high,  the  dimensions  of  the  to}) 
being  34  in.  x  22  in.,  and  is  provided  with  four  drawers,  14  in.  x  6|  x3}, 
inside  measure,  each  drav/er  having  a  metallic  projection  or  staple  on 
the  side,  corresponding  when  the  drawer  is  closed  to  a  like  projection 
on  the  side  of  its  pocket,  so  that  the  hasp  of  a  small  padlock  may  be 
thrust  through  the  staples,  thus  enabling  pupils  who  wish  to  secure  each 
his  own  instruments. 


IKDUSTKIAL   EDUCATTOISr. 


191 


The  following  is  a  perspective  view  of  one  of  the  drawing  tables,  the 
cost  beino;  $7.50  each  :  — 


The  study  of  practical  mechanics  closely  resembles  that  of  arithmetic. 
As  it  is  necessary  in  arithmetic  first  to  learn  to  write  numbers  (nota- 
tion), so  in  mechanics  it  is  necessary  first  to  learn  to  write  forms 
(drawing).  As  in  arithmetic,  so  in  mechanics,  there  are  four  funda- 
mental rules  that  must  be  thoroughly  understood  and  constantly 
practised.     They  are  as  follows  :  — 

Rule  First.  —  Measure  accurately,  according  to  plan. 

Rule  Second.  — Make  perfect  lines. 

Rule  Third.  — With  rapid-cutting  tools,  work  as  near  to  lines  as  can 
"be  done  with  safety. 

Rule  Fourth.  —  With  fine-cutting  tools,  work  exactly  to  lines. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  rules  that  accuracy  of  result  is  equally 
necessary  in  both  studies.  If  the  result  of  an  arithmetical  problem  is 
145,  any  other  result  is  incorrect,  however  small  the  fraction  of  variation ; 
and,  if  a  board  is  required  to  be  made  6  in.  long  x  2|  in.  wide,  the  result 
is  not  correct  if  it  varies  at  all  from  that  measurement. 

In  the  Springfield  Manual  Training  School  it  has  been  deemed  wise 
to  give  to  grammar  pupils  an  elementary  course,  Avhich  covers  the  use 
of  each  class  of  tools  in  the  set,  and  which  trains  in  accordance  with  the 
above  rules.     This  course  is  as  follows  :  — 


Elementary  Course  in  the  Use  of  Wood-working  Tools. 
(^Designed  for  Beginners.') 
As  each  tool  is  taken  in  hand,  describe  it  thoroughly  and  name  its  parts. 
Prepare  six  Avall-plates,  19  in.  x  25  in.,  showing  position  of  hands  in 
holding  hammer,  try  square,  gauge,  saw  and  chisel,  and  position  of 
nails  in  boxes. 


192  MANUAL   TRAINING  AND 


Lesson  I.  —  Use  of  the  Hammer. 

Problem  1.  —  Provide  for  each  pupil  a  block  of  pine  8  in.  x  1^-  in.  x  1| 
in.  On  one  side  draw  three  pencil  lines  lengthwise,  dividing  the  block 
in  fonr  equal  spaces.  Place  points  on  each  line  at  every  inch,  and  on 
one  line  drive  a  row  of  6cZ.  steel  wire  nails,  leaving  the  heads  standing 
I  in.  above  the  wood.  (See  wall -plate  for  position  of  hand  in  holding 
hammer  ) 

Froblcm  2.  —  Draw  the  above  driven  nails. 

Problem,  3.  —  In  a  similar  manner  drive  a  row  of  6cZ.  cut  nails  on  a 
second  line,  and  draw  them 

P)^oblem  4  —  On  a  line  i  in.  from  the  edge  of  the  block,  drive  a  roAV 
of  1  in.  No.  18  steel  wire  nails,  having  their  i)oints  bent  so  the  nails  will 
curve  and  come  out  on  the  adjacent  side,  meeting  a  line  drawn  ^  in. 
from  the  edge. 

Problem  o.  —  Take  a  piece  2  x  2  x  |  for  a  base,  and  a  piece  2  x  |  x  | 
for  a  stud,  and  toe-nail  stud  to  corner  of  base,  using  |  in.  patent  brads. 

Problem  6.  —  Take  two  pieces  4  in.  x  |  in.  x  ^^^  in.  and  nail  them  to 
the  edge  of  a  board  4  in.  x  2  in.  x  -^^  in.,  and  let  them  represent  joists. 
Furnish  floor  boards  |  in.  wide  x  \  in.  thick  x  4  in.  long,  and  teach 
blind-nailing  with  |  patent  brads. 

Problem  7.  —  Take  prepared  pieces  of  wood  I  in.  thick,  and  nail  up  a 
box  4  in.  long  x  2  in.  wide  x  1  in.  high  outside  measure,  taking  care 
that  no  nails  appear  in  the  sides,  and  that  the  pieces  are  smoothly  joined. 
Use  1  in  No.  21  steel  wire  nails.  (See  wall-plate  for  number  and 
position  of  nails.)  Mark  places  for  nails  right  distance  from  edge  of 
board  by  means  of  dividers,  setting  them  to  half  the  thickness  of  stock. 

(Write  name  legibly  on  every  piece  of  finished  work.) 

Lesson  LL.  —  Measurement. 
Problem.  —  Take  a  piece  8  x  |  x  | ;  scribe  with  dividers  a  line  I  in. 
from  the  edge  on  each  face.  Lay  the  rule  along  this  line  and  mark 
with  knife  point  at  every  \  in.  Repeat  on  an  adjacent  side,  marking  at 
every  \  in.  Repeat  on  third  side  at  every  i  in  and  on  the  fourth  side 
at  every  -^^  in.  of  alternate  inches. 

Lesson  III,  —  Try  Square. 

Problem  1.  —  Take  a  piece  8xl}x|;  measure  and  mark  with  fine 
pencil  point  at  every  inch.  Square  around  the  stick  through  each  point, 
using  pencil.  Repeat  at  half  inches,  using  knife,  making  proper  depth 
of  line.  Repeat  at  quarter  inches.  (See  wall-plate  for  method  of  hold- 
ing try  square.) 

Problem  2.  —  Repeat,  using  bevel  and  square  on  alternate  sides. 

Problem  3.  —  Repeat,  using  bevel  on  four  cides. 

Lesson  IV. —  Oauging. 
Problem  1.  —  Take  a  piece  8x2x^\  ;  set  gauge  \  in.  and  make  four 
lines.     Continually  set  gauge  -^^  in.  less,  making  four  lines  each  time 


i:n^dustkial  education.  193 

till  ^ig  in.  setting  is  reached.  Then  fill  the  rest  of  one  side  of  board  with 
lines  J-g  in.  apart,  leaving  opposite  side  to  write  name  and  number  of 
piece.     (See  wall-plate  for  manner  of  holding  gauge.) 

Problem  2.  —  Take  a  piece  6x1^x^5^,  and  fill  with  lines  Jg  in  apart, 
as  fine  as  can  be  made  uniform. 

Problem  3.  —  Take  a  piece  4x2  x| ;  fill  edges  and  ends  with  lines  ^^g 
in  apart. 

Problem  4.  —  Take  a  piece  4  x  2  x  ^\  ;  square  across  on  one  face  |  in. 
from  each  end  with  knife ;  gauge  |  in.  from  each  edge  between  knife 
lines  ;  square  again  \  in.  from  ends  between  gauge  lines  ;  then  gauge  \ 
in.  from  each  edge  between  square  lines,  and  so  fill  the  board,  leaving 
i  in.  width  in  centre  for  name. 

Problem  5.  —  On  reverse  side  of  Problem  4  make  diagonals ;  gauge 
between  them  at  every  \  in.,  and  square  with  knife  at  intersection  of 
diagonals  with  gauge  lines. 

Lesson  V.  —  Saw  to  Line. 

Problem  1.  —  Explain  difference  between  slitting  and  cutting-oflf  saws. 

Problem  2.  —  Take  a  piece  4  x  2  x  |  and  teach  to  start  kerf. 

Problem  3.  —  Take  a  piece  8  x  2  x  | ;  gauge  at  every  i  in.  on  sides  and 
ends ;  square  at  every  inch  on  sides  and  edges.  Slit-saw,  taking  out 
one-half  of  a  gauge  line,  till  the  first  squared  line  is  reached.  Rectify 
all  wrong  sawing  and  ijroceed  downward  another  inch  ;  rectify  and  pro- 
ceed a  third  inch  ;  fill  both  ends  of  the  stick  in  this  mamier. 

Problem  4.  —  Repeat,  sawing  as  far  from  line  as  width  of  kerf. 

Problem  5.  —  Take  a  piece  8  x  3^  x  | ;  gauge  and  square  at  every  \  in., 
and  practise  as  above,  with  cutting-oflf  saw. 

Lesson  VL. —  Surface  Planing. 

First  describe  minutely  each  of  the  three  planes  on  the  bench,  having' 
every  pupil  take  his  plane  apart,  reassemble  it  and  adjust  it.  A  plane 
is  properly  adjusted  when  the  middle  of  its  cutting  edge  passes  below 
the  plane  block  so  as  to  shave  the  wood,  while  the  ends  of  the  cutting 
edge  do  not  reach  down  far  enough  to  shave.  Pupils  should  do  this 
adjusting,  but  the  edge  must  be  j)ut  in  order  by  the  teaclier  or  by  pupils 
in  advanced  classes,  as  ability  to  sharpen  a  tool  cannot  easily  be  acquired 
in  advance  of  the  ability  to  use  it. 

From  I  in.  boards  of  any  width  saw  pieces  8|  in.  long,  and  sujoply 
each  member  of  the  class  with  a  piece.  From  these  are  to  be  finished 
boards  8  in.  long  by  2|  in.  wide,  observing  the  following  order  of  opera- 
tions :  First,  rough  saw  the  piece  in  strips  3  in.  wide.  Second,  rough- 
plane  the  edges  until  all  the  saw  marks  are  removed.  Third,  clean  off 
the  sides,  using  the  finishing  plane,  and  removing  as  little  wood  as  pos- 
sible, thus :  Suppose  lines  to  be  drawn  lengthwise  about  |  in,  apart. 
(See  Fig.  1.) 


194 


MANUAL    TRAINIISTG   AIsTD 


Fig.  1. 

Move  the  plane  first  so  as  to  have  the  middle  of  the  shaving  which  it 
cuts  come  from  the  middle  of  the  first  section.  (Be  sure  the  j)lane  cuts 
a  shaving  along  the  entire  length  of  the  board.)  Next,  plane  in  like 
manner  the  second  section,  then  the  third,  and  so  continue  till  the  whole 
surface  is  clean. 

Fourth,  true  the  sides  thus  :  Test  a  side  crosswise,  in  three  places,  as 
shown  at  Fig.  2,  viz.,  near  each  end,  and  in  the  middle,  holding  the  work 


Fig.  2. 

with  the  straight  edge  on  it,  up  between  the  eye  and  a  light  window, 
then  plane  where  the  test  has  shown  the  surface  to  be  too  high.  Next 
test  lengthwise  in  three  places  as  shown  at  Fig.  3,  viz.,  near  each  edge 
and  along  the  middle,  and  plane  where  these  tests  show  the  surface  to 


Fig.  3. 


be  too  high,  being  careful  in  all  these  planings  not  to  plane  such  por- 
tions of  the  surface  as  the  tests  show  to  be  already  sufficiently  low. 
Next  test  on  both  diagonals  as  shown  at  Fig.  4,  and  plane  off  the  high 
portions.     Finally,  repeat  the   above   eight  tests,  and,  if  the   surface 


Fig.  4. 

proves  true,  put  a  pencil  mark  on  the  side  thus  trued.     (See  Fig.  5.) 
This  pencil  mark  is  known  as  a  tried  mark,  and  indicates  that  the  first 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION. 


195 


side  is  tested  and  proved  tme.  Plane  and  test  the  opposite  side  in  the 
same  manner,  but  do  not  put  a  tried  mark  on  it»  Mark  it  with  a  figure 
2,  to  indicate  that  it  is  finished. 


Fig.  5. 

Fifth,  plane  the  edge  next  the  tried  mark,  testing  it  with  the  straight 
edge  lengthwise,  and  the  try  square  three  times,  viz.,  near  each  end  and 
near  the  middle,  squaring  from  the  tried  side.  Pencil  a  tried  mark  also 
on  this  edge.     (See  Fig.  6.) 


Fig.  G. 


Sixth,  set  the  gauge  2|  in.  pZw.s  —  this  will  be  practising  Rule  First, 
page  191.  Plus  measurement  means  setting  the  gauge  to  the  farther 
side  of  the  graduation  line.  Gauge  from  the  tried  edge  on  both  sides 
of  the  board — this  will  be  practising  Rule  Second  Rough-plane  near 
to  the  gauge  lines  —  this  will  be  practising  Rule  Third.  Finally,  finish 
plane  exactly  to  the  lines  —  this  will  be  practising  Rule  Fourth. 

Seventh,  square  around  the  board  about  ^  in.  from  one  end,  using 
knife  and  try  square,  squaring  in  all  cases  from  the  tried  side  and  tried 
edge.  Saw  near  to  the  line,  and  then,  holding  the  work  in  the  vise, 
plane  to  the  squared  lines,  using  the  block  plane. 

Eighth,  measure  from  this  finished  end  8  in.  plus  (Rule  1),  square 
around  as  before  (Rule  2) ,  saw  near  to  the  line  (Rule  3) ,  and  plane  to 
the  line  (Rule  4). 

Lesson  VII.  —  Boring. 

Problem  1.  —  Take  one  of  the  boards  planed  in  the  previous  lesson, 
gauge  from  the  tried  face  on  both  of  the  adjacent  edges  =j^g  in. ;  square 
around  at  every  |  in.,  squaring  from  the  tried  edge ;  bore  with  \  in. 
auger  bit  from  intersection  of  lines  on  one  edge  till  point  of  bit  meets 
intersection  on  opposite  edge. 

Problem  2.  —  Saw  off  one  of  the  boards  made  in  previous  lesson  5  in. 
long ;  lay  out  three  intersections  on  each  end,  and  bore  lengthwise  in  a 
similar  manner. 

Problem  3.  —  Repeat  with  board  8  in.  long,  boring  from  each  end. 


196  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

Lesson  VIII.  —  Brad-awl. 
Take  a  board  planed  in  previous  lesson,  to  |  in.  thickness,  gauge  and 
square  lines  ^  in.  apart  on  both  sides.     Awl  from  intersections  on  one 
side  to  intersections  on  the  other  side. 

Lesson  IX.  —  Shove  Planing.  —  Ctit  to  Width. 
Problem  1.  —  Take  a  soft,  straight-grained  pine  board,  \  in.  thick, 
about  4  ft.  long  by  6  in.  wide.  If  end  of  board  be  not  clean  wood,  first 
saw  off  I  in.  or  more,  to  waste.  Next  saw  off  a  piece  4|  in.  long  ;  hold 
this  piece  in  vise  and  plane  the  edge  with  wooden  plane  till  roughness 
is  off,  then  plane  edge  square  and  true  by  means  of  shove-plane  block, 
using  8  in.  Bailey  iron  plane.  Use  standard  rule  to  set  gauge  |  in.  plus 
(Rule  1).  Gauge  from  the  finished  edge  on  both  sides  of  the  board 
(Rule  2).  Saw  near  to  the  line  (Rule  3),  plane  to  middle  of  line,  leav- 
ing one  side  of  line  visible  (Rule  4).  Carefully  plane  out  gauge  lines 
by  the  least  possible  number  of  full-length  shavings.  (Never  move  a 
plane  across  a  board  without  perceiving  that  it  cuts.)  Make  twelve 
pieces.     Six  of  these  pieces  placed  side  by  side  should  measure  4i  in. 

Lesson  X.  —  Cut  to  Length. 

Problem  1.  —  Take  three  pieces  made  in  Lesson  IX. ;  plane  each  end 
on  shove-plane  block,  using  6  in.  Bailey  iron  block  plane.  Measure 
from  each  end  2  in.  (Rule  1)  ;  square  across  face  with  knife  (Rule  2)  ; 
saw  near  line  (Rule  3),  and  plane  to  line,  leaving  half  of  line  visible; 
then  carefully  plane  out  the  line  (Rule  4).    Make  six  pieces. 

Problem  2.  —  Trim  to  an  exact  common  length,  observing  that  said 
common  length  is  just  2  in.  In  making  the  above  2  in.  measurement, 
mark  it  jjIus  ;  that  is,  put  the  knife  point  not  against  the  centre  of 
graduation  line,  but  against  the  farther  side.  Then,  when  lines  are 
planed  out,  the  pieces  will  be  just  2  in.  long,  and  when  placed  end  to 
end  will  measure  exactly  12  inches. 

Problem  3.  —  Make,  as  above,  two  pieces,  4|  in.  long. 

Problem  4.  —  Take  two  pieces  of  Problem  3,  and  five  pieces  of  Prob- 
lem 2,  and  nail  up  a  case  of  shelves,  using  |  No.  20  wire  brads.  Make 
similar  problems  of  other  dimensions. 

Lesson  XL  —  Examples  Involving  Practice  in  All  of  the  Foregoing 

Lesso7t,s. 

Problem  1.  —  Take  \  in.  board  4^-  in.  long,  as  in  Lesson  IX.,  and  make 
two  pieces  2  in.  wide. 

According  to  Lesson  X.,  make  them  4  in.  long. 

Also,  make  four  pieces  |  in.  wide  x  4  in.  long  and  four  pieces  |  in. 
wide  x  1|  in.  long.  Use  f  in.  No.  20  wire  brads,  and  nail  as  in  Lesson 
I.,  maldng  two  boxes,  each  4  in.  long  x  2  in.  wide  x  1  in.  high,  outside 
measure. 

Problem  2.  —  As  above,  make  a  box  5  x  2^-  x  IJ. 

Problem  3.  —  Make  a  box  41x21x1'. 

Problem  4.  —  Make  a  box  4^  x  2|  x  l^^g. 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  197 

Problem  5.  —  Make  a  box  4|-  x  2i  x  1  Jg . 

Ready  workmen  will  finish  Problem  5  as  soon  as  backward  ones  finish 
Problem  2.  Let  each  pupil  study  out  for  himself  the  dimensions  of  parts 
to  each  box. 

Lessoji  XII.  —  Hand  Screw. 

Problem  1.  —  Exercise  in  opening  and  shutting.  Set  clamp  to  different 
widths,  as  2  in.,  3  in.,  4  in.,  2\  in.,  etc.  Also  set  it  to  hold  two,  three,  or 
four  pieces  of  |  boards. 

Problem  2.  —  Make  a  foot  rule.  Take  \  in.  stock ;  finish  a  piece  |  in. 
wide  X  12  in.  long ;  gauge  on  one  face  from  one  edge,  |  in.,  \  in.,  |  in., 
1  in.  Lay  a  standard  rule  behind  it,  clamping  blocks  to  bench  top  at 
each  end ;  then  with  knife  and  try  square,  make  squared  lines  at  every 
inch,  back  to  i  in.  gauge  line ;  at  every  \  in.,  back  to  |  gauge  line  ;  at 
every  \  in.,  back  to  \  gauge  line,  and  at  every  J  in.,  back  to  J  in.  gauge 
line.  Sharpen  hard  lead  pencil  to  a  goose-bill  edge,  and  blacken  all  of 
these  lines. 

Lesson  XIII.  —  Dividers. 

Problem  1.  —  Take  a  board  8  x  3|  x  i ;  gauge  \  in.  from  one  edge  on 
each  side ;  square  around  near  the  middle.  From  intersection  of  lines 
on  one  side  measure  2  in.  each  way  on  the  gauge  line,  and  make  an 
accurate  point  with  hard  pencil.  Also  measure  3  in.  each  way  and 
every  |  in.  betAveen  2  in.  and  3  in.  From  intersection  of  lines  as  a 
centre,  describe  9  semicircles  passing  through  points  and  continuing  to 
edge  of  board. 

Problem  2.  —  On  opposite  side  of  board  describe  a  3  in.  semicircle, 
and  on  the  right  side  of  the  squared  line  lay  off  angles  30°,  60'^.  On 
the  left  side  lay  ofi"  45^,  22 1^. 

Lesson  XIV.  —  Square  Prism,.  —  Forms  Developed  From  It. 
Problem  1.  —  From  2  in.  plank  17  in.  long  saw  off  strips  2  in.  wide; 
cut  in  two  lengths  of  8i  in.  each.  Plane  the  sawed  edges  of  each  with 
the  wooden  plane.  Plane  one  side  of  each  to  a  geometrical  surface 
with  the  8  in.  iron  plane,  observing  the  directions  given  in  Lesson  VL 
In  planing  any  one  surface  Avith  either  the  wooden  or  iron  plane,  sup- 
pose the  surface  to  be  divided  into  three  equal  parts  or  sections  by  lines 
running  lengthwise,  thus  :  — 


Move  the  plane  first  so  as  to  have  the  middle  of  the  shaving  which  it 
cuts  come  from  the  middle  of  the  front  section ;  move  the  plane  second 
time  so  as  to  have  the  middle  of  the  shaving  come  from  the  middle  of 
the  rear  section ;  move  it  the  third  time  along  the  middle  of  the  middle 
section.  (Be  sure  that  the  plane  cuts  during  the  entire  stroke.)  Test 
the  planed  surface  with  straight  edge  to  see  if  the  middle  section  is  down 
even  with  the  side  sections.     If  not,  take  middle  sectional  shavings  till 


198  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

it  is.  A  side  is  planed  to  a  geometrical  surface  when  it  will  pass  eight 
tests  with  a  straight  edge,  as  mentioned  in  Lesson  VI.  A  block  similar 
to  the  above  needs  to  hang  on  a  leg  of  the  bench,  and  be  kept  as  a  part 
of  its  equipment,  to  test  the  adjustment  of  plane  when  required.  Write 
name  on  this  first  side  when  completed.  Next  plane  an  adjacent  side  to 
a  geometrical  surface  in  a  similar  manner,  making  it  square  with  first 
side  by  vising  try  square  instead  of  straight  edge  in  making  the  three 
Avidth  tests.  The  third  side  is  finished  by  gauging  1|  in.  plus  from  first 
or  name  side,  planing  to  middle  of  gauge  line,  then  carefully  planing 
gauge  line  out  to  leave  clear  comers,  observing  all  the  above,  directions 
concerning  sectional  shavings  and  straight-edge  tests.  Supply  ready 
pupils  with  work  while  the  entire  class  are  making  these  two  blocks, 
by  allowing  each  one  to  make  as  many  as  he  can  do  well.  Great  care 
must  be  used  in  planing  first  and  second  sides,  not  to  remove  much 
stock,  if  the  pupil  would  accomplish  the  desired  object  of  finishing  the 
blocks  1|  in.  square.  In  case  of  too  much  removal,  make  the  blocks 
Jg  in.  smaller. 

Problem  2.  —  Block  plane  ends  of  above,  making  them  8  in.  long. 
Use  for  this  the  6  in.  Bailey  iron  block  plane.  First,  square  around 
about  \  in.  from  one  end  with  knife  and  try  square  ;  next,  saw  very  near 
this  line  nearly  half  way  through  ;  turn  the  block  one-quarter  of  a  rev- 
olution aAvay  from  you  and  saw  as  before  ;  repeat  with  third  side,  then 
with  fovirth  side,  finishing  the  cut.  If  skill  has  been  exercised,  very 
little  is  left  to  plane.  If  the  sawing  has  been  done  far  from  the  line,  a 
chisel  had  better  be  used  before  planing.  Hold  block  in  vise  vertically, 
and  plane  from  every  side  towards  the  middle.  The  comers  will  be 
split  off  if  the  plane  be  driven  entirely  across  the  end.  Measure  8  in. 
j:)lus  from  this  finished  end,  square,  saw  and  plane  as  before.  In  doing 
the  above  recall  the  four  fundamental  rules. 

Problem  3.  —  Take  one  of  the  above  pieces  and  laj-  out  an  octagon  on 
each  end.  The  distance  from  a  corner  of  the  square  to  a  corner  of  the 
octagon  is  the  semi-diagonal  of  the  square.  Plane  to  these  lines,  mak- 
ing an  octagonal  prism. 

Problem  4.  —  Make  an  octagonal  pyramid  3  in.  long  on  one  end  of 
octagonal  prism,  using  chisel  and  plane  ;  and  an  octagonal  head  on  the 
opposite  end,  using  chisel. 

Problem  5.  —  Take  another  square  block  from  Problem  1 ;  make  first 
an  octagonal  prism ;  then,  by  planing  its  corners,  a  sixteen-sided  prism, 
then  a  thirty-two-sided  prism,  and  finally  a  cylinder. 

Problem  G.  —  Make  a  cone  on  one  end  of  the  cylinder  of  Problem  5, 
and  a  sphere  on  the  other,  operating  as  in  Problems  4  and  5. 

Lesson  XV.  —  Bread  Board. 
Supply  each  pupil  with  a  piece  of  |  in.  white-wood,  and  have  him 
make  a  bread  board  9  in.  x  12  in.,  observing  carefully  all  directions 
given  in  Lesson  VI.  Cut  off  the  corners  2  in.  on  the  ends  and  3  in.  on 
the  edges,  making  the  surface  eight-sided.  Chamfer  all  corners  J  in. 
Sand-pa])er  the  finished  work.  Let  such  pupils  as  wish  to  pay  the  cost 
of  the  lumber  have  this  board  to  carry  home. 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  199 

Lesson  XVI.  —  Bevelled  Joints. 
Have  each  pupil  draw  a  bevelled  joint  of  |  in.  thickness,  3  in.  high, 
5  in.  long  on  the  upper  side,  and  4  in.  long  on  the  lower,  that  is,  the 
amount  of  bevel  being  1  in.  in  the  height  of  joint.  Explain  thoroughly 
the  details  of  laying  out  and  making  the  joint,  after  which  each  pupil 
should  follow  them,  observing  all  previous  instructions  which  apply. 

Lesson  XVIL  —  Knife  Box. 
As  each  pvxpil  completes  his  bevelled  joint  have  him  draw  and  make 
a  knife  box  of  |  in.  white-wood,  2  in.  high,  12  in.  x  8  in.  on  the  top  and 
10  in.  X  6  in.  on  the  bottom,  with  a  partition  through  the  middle  length- 
wise 3|  in.  high,  having  a  hole  for  a  handle.  This  box  may  be  stained 
black  walnut  or  cherry  and  shellacked,  or  it  may  be  varnished  in  native 
color.  Allow  each  pupil  to  have  his  own  work  by  paying  for  the 
lumber. 

Lesson  XVIII. —  Chisel. 

Problem  1.  —  Make,  as  in  Lesson  VI.,  two  boards  8  J  in.  x  2  in.  x  |  in., 
gauge  from  one  edge  of  each  board  |  in.  on  the  adjacent  side ;  measure 
on  this  edge  and  place  jjoints  at  every  |  in. ;  square  with  the  knife 
through  each  of  these  points  across  the  edge  and  on  both  the  adjacent 
sides  as  far  as  the  gauge  lines.  Cut  out  each  alternate  |  in.  section  so 
laid  out  by  sawing  nearto  the  lines  and  then  chiselling  exactly  to  the  lines. 

Problem  2.  —  Make  a  board  8  in.  x  S^\  in.  x  }  in.  Gauge  -|  in.  from 
one  side  on  both  edges  and  ends.  On  this  side,  and  on  edges  and  ends 
down  as  far  as  to  gauge  line,  lay  out  the  board  in  -^  in.  squares.  Chisel 
to  these  lines  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  on  the  side  of  the  board  a 
group  of  square  pyramids  whose  ajjices  shall  be  1  in.  apart  and  whose 
altitudes  shall  be  ^  in. 

Lesson  XIX.  —  Gouge. 

Problem,  1.  —  Make  a  board  8  in.  x  S^j^  in.  x  |  in.  On  one  side  of  it 
gauge  lines  lengthwise  at  every  ^^  in.  AVith  the  gouge  cut  semicircular 
grooves  in  alternate  spaces,  using  corner  of  try  square  to  test  accuracy 
of  semicircle. 

Problem  2. — Repeat  Problem  1,  squaring  lines  crosswise  at  every 

iV  ill- 

Lesson  XX.  —  Screw  Driver. 

Problem  1.  —  Make  two  soft-wood  boards  8  in.  x  2  in.  x  |  in.  On  one 
side  of  one  of  them  square  lines  one  inch  from  each  end  ;  square  three  more 
lines  1.^  in.  apart  between  these,  and  gauge  a  line  \  in.  from  each  edge. 

With  the  -^-^  in.  drill  bit,  bore  holes  through  the  board  at  five  of  the 
intersections,  the  location  of  the  holes  forming  a  zigzag  line.  Place  the 
second  board  underneath  the  first,  insert  five  1\  in  No.  11  screws  in  the 
bored  holes,  and  turn  them  down  with  the  screw  driver  till  the  heads 
come  flush  with  the  surface  ot  the  upper  board. 

Problem  2. — Repeat  Problem  1,  using  maple  or  some  hard  wood. 
Through  the  upper  board  bore  /^  ii^-  holes  and  countersink  them.  Bore 
3^  in.  holes  half  way  through  the  lower  board,  and  dip  the  end  of  each 
screw  in  tallow  before  using  it. 

The  above  elementary  course  gives  practice  with  each  class  of  tools 


200 


MANUAL.  TRAINING   AND 


mentioned  in  the  list  on  page  188,  and  occupies  pupils  of  the  senior 
grammar  grade  during  one  year  of  forty  weeks,  one  lesson  of  one  and 
one-half  hours'  duration  being  taken  each  week. 

High-school  Work. 

The  class  of  freshmen  organized  last  September  numbers  thirteen,  six 
of  whom  are  from  the  scientific  and  manual  course,  and  seven  from  the 
Latin  course.  Problems  in  joinery  made  by  this  class  are  shown  on 
page  201,  where  they  are  one-tenth  size,  except  the  frames,  Nos.  7  and  8, 
and  the  drawing  board,  T  square  and  triangles.  No.  15.  The  joints  of 
these  triangles  are  secured  by  means  of  glue  and  doAvels  made  from  i 
in.  No.  21  wire  brads.  The  drawings  from  which  this  j)late  was  ijhoto- 
graphed  were  made  by  i^upils  of  the  school. 

The  problems  are  all  of  pine  except  the  triangles,  which  are  of  cherry. 
They  are  numbered  and  named  as  folloAVS  :  No.  1,  halved  corner  joint ; 
No.  2,  halved  with  relish  joint;  No.  3,  bevelled  halved  joint;  No.  4, 
dovetailed  halved  joint;  No.  5,  flat  mitre  joint;  No.  6,  mortise  and 
tenon  joint ;  No  7,  mitred  frame,  8  x  10  ;  No.  8,  mortised  frame,  8  x  10  ; 
No.  9,  dowelled  joint;  No.  10,  dado  joint;  No  11,  drawer  front  joint; 
No.  12,  erect  mitre  joint;  No.  13,  mitre  and  halved  joint;  No.  14,  mitre 
and  mortised  joint;  No.  15,  drawing  board,  21x28;  No.  16,  45°  tri- 
angle, 6  in.  base ;  No.  17,  30"^  and  60'^  triangle,  5  in.  base ;  No.  18,  T 
square,  2|  in.  width  of  blade  and  head  ;  No.  19,  straight  splice  ;  No.  20, 
bevelled  splice. 

In  addition  to  these  joints  many  of  the  pupils  made  each  a  foundry 
flask,  having  dovetailed  corners,  for  his  own  use  next  year,  and  a  box 
for  holding  the  tools  used  in  knife  work  in  lower  grammar  grades. 
(See  cut  below.) 

Turning  problems  will  be  found  on  pages  202-205,  inclusive  ;  carving 
problems  on  pages  206-210,  inclusive ;  pattern-making  problems  on 
pages  213,  214. 


ELEVATlOiS!. 
26- 


- 

DIVIDERS 

TRY 
SQUARES _ 

1    1     1    1     1    1     1    I    I    |a|    1     1    1     1    1     1     1     1     1 

"     \ 

PENCILS 

RULES 

j 

1 — 

0 

n 

KNIVES 

- 

1 1  |b|  1  1  1  1  1   1  1  1  1 

DIVIDERS 

PLAN. 


njTjnjnjnjnjn_njnjnjnj~Lri 


ELEVATION  OF  THE  STRIPS  A  AND  B. 


INDUSTEIAL    EDUOATIOlSr. 


201 


Joinery  Problems. 


rm 


z 

..., 

0 

1           n 

I 



lO 

o 


10 


17 


Scale,  Jg  in.  to  1  in.  for  all  ex- 
cept 7, 8  and  15,  for  which  see  page 
200. 


202 


MAI^^UAL    TRAINING   AND 


Turning  Problems. 

Series  First.  —  Elementary  Centre  Work. 

Problem  1. 


Problem  2. 


<^ 

^~\ 

Problem  3. 


Problem  4. 


Problem  5. 


liiiiii 


Problem  6. 


Problem  7. 


rrtiiMMftfi 

Li-V4JH>^UHJHJHJ 

Problem  8. 


Problem  0. 

Problem  10. 


Problem  1.     Cylinder. 


Problem  2.    Hollows. 


Problem    8.      Rounded    hol- 
lows. 


Problem  4.     Square  grooves. 


Problem  5.    V  grooves. 


Problem  6.    Beads. 


Problem  7.     Beads,   fillets 
and  hollows. 


Problem    8.      Ovolos    and 
cavettos. 


Problem  9.    Hollow  cylinder 
on  arbor. 


Problem  10.  Stool  leg,  with 
tenon  on  one  end  to  fit  bored 
hole. 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION. 


203 


Series  Second.  —  Templet  Forms, 


Problem,  1. 

Sphere. 
Problem  2. 

Ellipsoid. 
Problem  3. 

Ovoid. 


Problem  4. 


Conoid. 


Problem  5. 


Probletn  6. 


Vase. 


Acorn. 


Problem,  7. 


Masher. 


CXI 


"> 


Series  Third.  —  Polished  Forms. 


Problem  1. 

Ball  bat. 


Problem  2. 


Billy. 


Problem,  3. 

Shank  chisel 
handle. 

Problem,  4. 

Shank  chisel 
handle. 

Problem  5. 

Shank  chisel 
handle. 

Problem  6. 

Socket  chisel 
handle. 

Problem  7. 

Screw-driver 
handle. 

Problem  8. 

Dumb  bell. 


204 


MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 


Series  Fourth.  —  Face  Plate  Work. 


^^^m 


:    \_^       Problem  1.     Moulding. 
^^^  Problem  2.     Octagonal  ring. 


I       j  ('      J  Problem  3.     Round  ring. 


4L, 


Problem  4.     Cone  pulley. 


Problem,  5.    Polished  hard-wood  rosette. 


Problem  6.    Napkin  ring. 


Problem  7.    Match  barrel 


Series  Fifth.  —  Long  Work. 


t 


J 


c — 0= 


Problem  1.  Plain 
chair  round. 

,       .                           Problem  2.  Oma- 

C=I=:CCI_ElL^^^^            mental  chair 
3                                  round. 

Problem  3.  Chair 
leg. 


JETO 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION. 


205 


Series  Sixth.  —  Assembled  Work. 


Problem  1. 


Mallet. 


Problem  2. 


Rolling  pin. 


Problem  3. 

Light  stand. 
The  top  of  this  stand 
is  octagonal  in  form. 
There  are  four  legs  and 
four  braces,  but  only 
two  of  each  are  shown, 
for  clearness.  They  are 
secured  in  place  by 
means  of  screws. 


The  above  prints  of  turning  problems  are  all  one-quarter  size,  except 
series  fifth  and  sixth,  which  are  one-eighth  size. 


206 


MANUAL    TRAINING  AND 


Carving   Problems. 

Incised  Work. 
Against  each  problem  is  a  list  of  the  tools  used  in  carving  it.  The 
size  and  number  correspond  with  J.  B.  Addis'  catalogue.  The  boards 
are  prepared  by  machinery,  and  are  of  |  in.  pine,  except  Problem  11, 
which  is  I  in.,  and  which  is  prepared  by  pupils.  The  prints  are  from 
drawings  made  by  pupils,  and  are  one-quarter  size. 


Problem  1. 
Veiner,  |  in.,  No.  11. 


Problem  2. 
Veiner,  I  in.,  No.  11, 


Problem  3. 
Veiner,  I  in..  No.  11. 


Problems  4  and  6. 
Veiner,  g?^  i"-)  ^o.  11. 
Gouge,  ^^g  in.,  No.  9. 


INDUSTEIAL    EDUCATION. 


207 


Problems  5  and  7. 
Veiner,  ^^  in.,  No.  11. 
Gouge,  ^^g  in.,  No.  9. 


Problem  8. 

Yeiner,  |  in.,  No.  11. 
Gouge,  ^Q  in..  No.  9. 


Problem  9. 
Veiner,  f^  in.,  No.  11. 


Problem  10. 

Veiner,  ^  in.,  No.  11. 


Problem  11. 
Parting   tool, 
I  in.,  No.  39. 


10 


I 
JUUUUUUUUU '. 


208 


MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 


13 

00 

00 

Problem  12. 

Veiner,  g^j  in.,  No,  11. 
Parting    tool,    |    in.. 
No.  39. 


Problevi  13. 

Veiner,  f^  in.,  No.  11. 
Flat  gouge,  \  in.,  No.  7. 


Problem  14. 
Veiner,  g^a  in..  No.  11. 
Gouge,  ^3g  in..  No.  9. 
Gouge,  I  in..  No.  9. 
Flat  gouge,  |  in.,  No.  4. 
Flat  gouge,  §  in..  No.  5. 
Flat  gouge,  \  in..  No.  7. 


Problem  15. 
Veiner,  g^  in..  No.  11. 
Gouge,  -/j  in..  No.  9. 


Problems  1  to  4,  on  the  following  page,  are  executed  on  the  four  sides 
of  a  hard-wood  block  2\  in.  square,  and  require  the  following  tools: 
\  in.  No.  1,  \  in.  No.  1,  |  in.  No.  2,  |  in.  No.  5,  \  in.  No.  7,  \  in.  stamp. 

Problems  5  to  8  are  executed  on  \  in.  pine.  Problems  9,  10  and  11 
constitute  one  exercise,  portions  of  the  class  working  on  each.  They 
are  on  |  in.  cherry.    Problem  12  is  on  \  in.  bay  wood. 

To  execute  each  of  these  requires  from  one-half  to  all  of  the  tools. 


INDUSTEIAL   EDUCATION. 


209 


Belief  Work. 


VAAAAAAAAAAAA7 


kAAAAAAAAAAAA^i^ 


1 

i||l|&;^&;j5ts,rt!^^»g 

■i 

6 


B 

^^ 

^f#?p 

j^^/;?^^^^^0 

^J^^^ri 

^^^^^ 

^^^ 

^^^^^ 

ipMid 

^E 

s 

9  10 

Scale  for  this  page,  ^  in.  to  1  in. 


210 


MAJSUAL    TEAU^flNG   AND 


One-half  size. 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  211 

Pattern-Making. 

Solid  Blocks. 
Problem  1.  —  The  cuts  on  page  213  give  three  views  of  a  planed  iron 
block  4  in.  X  3  in.  x  -|  in.,  for  which  block  three  patterns  are  made  ;  the 
first  is  to  be  moulded  with  a  side  uppermost,  the  second  with  an  edge 
uppermost  and  the  third  with  an  end  uppermost,  shrinkage,  draft  and 
finish  being  allowed  for  in  each  case.  Problem  2  is  tAVO  views  of  a 
block  3  in.  long  x  1|  in.  square,  of  which  three  patterns  are  made,  to  be 
moulded  first  with  a  side  uppermost,  second  with  a  corner  upiDcrmost, 
third  with  an  end  uppermost,  shrinkage,  draft  and  finish  being  alloAved 
for,  as  in  Problem  1.  Problem  3  is  two  views  of  a  cylinder,  for  which 
two  patterns  are  made  (by  j)laning,  not  by  turning) ,  one  being  moulded 
sidewise  and  one  endwise.  Problem  4  is  three  views  of  a  box  8  in.  x 
4  in.  X  2\  in.,  having  |  in.  thickness  of  stock.  An  important  item  of 
instrtiction  which  it  furnishes  is  the  shaping  of  its  end  pieces.  Leather 
corners  are  also  introduced  with  this  problem. 

Green  Sand  Cores. 
Pj'oblem  6  is  two  views  of  a  flat  pattern  10  in.  x  3  in.  x  |  in.,  through 
which  three  holes  are  cut,  square,  round  and  hexagonal,  respectivelyc 

Dried  Sa?id  Cores. 

Problem  7  is  two  views  of  a  flat  casting  5  in.  x  3  in.  x  |  in.,  cored  so 
as  to  leave  ^^  in.  thickness  of  stock. 

Problem  8  is  two  views  of  a  hollow  square  prism,  of  which  two 
patterns  are  made,  drawing  cornerwise  and  endwise,  respectively. 
Problem  9  is  two  views  of  a  hollow  cylinder  3  in.  by  1\  in.,  of  which  two 
turned  patterns  are  made,  drawing  sidewise  and  endwise,  respectively. 

Problem  10  is  three  views.  A,  B,  C,  of  a  pattern  having  depressed 
core  prints.  It  is  required  to  mould  a  block  4  in.  x  3  in.  x  1|  in.,  with 
an  edge  uppermost,  and  a  core  passing  horizontally  through  the  centre 
of  the  block.     The  dotted  lines  show  where  the  cored  hole  will  be. 

Problem  11  is  three  views,  D,  E,  F,  of  a  pattern  having  a  depressed 
core  passing  at  an  angle  through  the  middle  of  a  block  4  in.  x  3  in.  x 
If  in.  The  dotted  lines  show  where  the  cored  hole  will  be.  The 
invisible  corners  of  the  core  prints  are  not  represented  on  D. 

Bosses. 

Problem  6  is  &  pattern  similar  to  Problem  5,  but  having  bosses  instead 
of  holes. 

Problem  12  is  three  views  of  a  block,  4  in.  x  3  in.  x  1|  in.,  having  a 
depressed  boss  on  each  side.  Each  boss  is  connected  to  the  main  pattern 
by  a  dovetail,  and  is  to  be  drawn  from  the  mould  after  the  main  pattern 
is  drawn. 

Divided  and  Dowelled  Patterns. 

Problem  13  is  a  pattern  of  a  flat  block,  4  in.  x  3  in.  x  If  in.,  divided 
in  the  middle  and  dowelled. 


212  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

Problem  14  is  a  turned  pattern  of  a  hollow  cylinder,  3  in.  x  1^  in., 
divided  and  dowelled. 

Construction  Patterns. 

Problem  15  is  three  views  of  a  pipe,  T  pattern,  one-fifth  size. 

Problem  16  is  one  view  of  a  pipe,  elbow  pattern,  one-fifth  size,  show- 
ing the  extra  length  of  core  prints  necessary  to  balance. 

Problem  17  is  a  hitching-post  head  pattern,  one-tenth  size,  showing 
extra  length  of  core  prints  necessary  to  balance. 

Problem  18  is  a  solid  pulley  pattern,  one-fifth  size,  the  spokes  being 
whittled  with  a  knife  after  turning. 

Problem  19  is  two  orthographic  views  and  one  isometric  view  of  a 
steam  cylinder,  one-fifth  size,  a  ijroject  requiring  much  time  and  patience 
to  execute. 

A  core  box  was  made  as  needed  with  each  of  the  above  pattern  prob- 
lems, and  at  the  close  of  the  series  each  member  of  the  class  moulded 
his  own  pattern  and  obtained  a  plaster  of  Paris  casting  from  it. 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION. 


213 


Elementary  Patterns. 


O 


n 


Qa 

B 

10 


Id 

2 

D 

^ 

|e 

1 

-y 

11 


F  / 


l'|'M|'|i|Mi|MMM 
1      g      5     4-      5    " 


" 


Scale  of  inches,  one-fifth  size 
for  all  problems  on  this  page 
except  5  and  6,  which  are  one- 
tenth  size.     (See  page  211.) 


214 


MANUAL    TKAINING   AND 


Construction  Patterns. 


1 

i    I 
'    1 

1 

\ 

1 

1 

\     1 

1     I 

1   1 

1    ' 

L-J 

18 


Scale  of  inches,  one-fifth  size  for  all  of  the  problems  on  this  page 
except  17,  which  is  one-tenth  size.     (See  page  212.) 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  215 


Appendix   J. 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  AND  MANUAL  TRAINING  IN  NEW 

JERSEY.* 

By  Mh.  C.  E.  MELENEY,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  Somerville. 


In  1881  the  Legislature  of  New  Jersey  passed  a  bill  guarantee- 
ing that  the  State  would  duplicate,  out  of  the  funds  in  the  State 
treasury,  any  amount  of  money,  between  $3,000  and  $5,000,  that 
might  be  raised  in  any  locality  in  the  State,  either  by  subscription 
or  by  appropriation,  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  a  school  or 
schools  for  industrial  education  ;  and,  after  such  school  or  schools 
have  been  established,  that  there  should  be  appropriated  annually 
a  sum  equal  to  that  raised  each  year  by  the  locality. 

The  first  city  to  profit  by  this  legislation  was  Newark,  the 
raeti'opolis  of  the  State,  one  of  the  great  manufacturing  cities  of 
the  country,  A  fund  of  $5,000  was  raised  by  the  citizens,  who 
guaranteed  to  duplicate  their  subscription  for  five  years.  The 
board  of  trustees  provided  for  in  the  law  was  organized  as  fol- 
lows :  the  governor,  who  is  ex  officio  the  president  of  the  board, 
two  members  appointed  by  the  subscribers,  two  appointed  by  the 
city  board  of  education  aud  two  by  the  city  council.  These  trus- 
tees receive  no  compensation  for  their  services,  but  any  expenses 
incurred  by  them  in  the  discharge  of  their  duties  is  paid  upon  the 
approval  of  the  governor. 

In  1890  an  act  making  the  trustees  a  corporate  body  was  passed 
by  the  Legislature.     The  act  of  1881  read  as  follows  :  — 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  General  Assembly  of  the  State  of  New 
Jersey,  that  whenever  any  board  of  education,  school  committee  or  other 
like  body,  of  any  city,  town  or  township  in  this  State,  shall  certify  to  the 
governor  that  a  sum  of  monej',  not  less  than  $3,000,  has  been  contributed 
by  voluntary  subscriptions  of  citizens  or  otherwise,  as  hereinafter  author- 
ized, for  tlie  establishment  in  any  such  city,  town  or  township,  of  any 
school  or  schools  for  industrial  education,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  said 

*  Report  of  testimony  given  before  the  Commission. 


216  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

governor  to  cause  to  be  drawn,  by  warrant  of  the  comptroller,  approved 
by  himself,  out  of  any  moneys  in  the  State  treasury  not  otherwise  appro- 
priated, an  amoimt  equal  to  that  contributed  by  the  particular  locality  as 
aforesaid  for  the  said  object ;  and  when  any  such  school  or  schools  shall 
have  been  established  in  any  locality  as  aforesaid,  there  shall  be  annually 
contributed  by  the  State  in  manner  aforesaid,  for  the  maintenance  and 
support  thereof,  a  sum  of  money  equal  to  that  contributed  each  year,  in 
said  locality,  for  such  purpose  :  provided,  however,  that  the  moneys  con- 
tributed by  the  State  as  aforesaid  to  any  locality  shall  not  exceed  in  any 
one  year  the  sum  of  $5,000. 

With  a  fund  of  $10,000  the  Newark  Technical  School  was 
opened  in  1885,  as  an  evening  school,  the  persons  whom  it  was 
intended  to  benefit  being  of  the  working  classes,  engaged  during 
the  day  in  the  various  manufacturing  industries  of  the  city. 

As  stated  in  the  catalogue,  "  The  object  of  the  Newark  Tech- 
nical School  is  the  advancement  of  the  manufacturing  interests  of 
the  city,  and  its  course  is  arranged  with  special  reference  to  the 
intellectual  wants  and  improvements  of  the  working  classes  ;  "  and, 
in  order  that  as  many  pupils  as  possible  from  the  working  classes 
could  attend  the  school,  it  was  instituted  in  the  evening. 

As  this  school  is  pre-eminently  an  industrial  school,  the  course 
of  study  is  arranged  accordingly.  The  preparatory  class  includes 
arithmetic,  writing  and  composition.  First  year,  algebra,  physics, 
descriptive  chemistry,  free-hand  drawing.  Second  year,  geometry, 
free-hand  drawing,  descriptive  chemistry  finished,  lectures  on  agri- 
culture and  technical  chemistry,  the  latter  referring  to  the  appli- 
cation of  chemistry  in  manufacturing  industries,  and  including 
among  others  the  following  subjects  :  soap,  illuminating  gas,  coal 
tar  and  its  derivatives,  sugars,  photography,  bleaching,  dyes,  dye- 
ing and  tissue  printing.  Third  year,  algebra  completed,  geometry 
completed,  theory  of  cutting  tools,  mechanical  or  architectural 
drawing,  physics  and  its  divisions.  Fourth  year,  trigonometry, 
mechanics,  technical  chemistry,  descriptive  geometry,  mechanical 
or  architectural  drawing,  steam  engineering,  a  course  of  ten  lect- 
ures on  the  physical  properties  of  steam,  steam  generators,  steam 
motors  and  the  indicator. 

Owing  to  the  limited  resources,  they  have  no  shop  work,  but 
the  students  are  usually  employed  in  shops  during  the  daytime, 
and  the  director  of  the  school  frequently  visits  the  shops  where 
the  students  are  employed. 

The  institution  is  very  well  supplied  with  models  and  patterns 
for  drawing,  etc.,  and  it  is  intended  that  the  various  stages  of 
manufacture  shall  be  illustrated,  as  far  as  possible,  from  the  raw 
material  to  the  finislied  article,  specimens  of  which  are  supplied 


I]!a)USTRIAL    EDUCATION.  217 

for  the  school  cabinets.  The  work  in  chemistry  consists  of  lect- 
ures and  exi^eriments,  but  without  the  laboratory  work  by  the 
pupils. 

Sessions  are  held  from  7  to  9.30,  three  evenings  each  week. 

For  five  years  the  subscribers  contributed  according  to  their 
agreement,  thus  securing  in  all  $50,000  for  the  school.  It  is  now 
supported  by  an  annual  appropriation  by  the  city  of  $5,000,  to 
which  is  added  each  year  an  equivalent  sum  from  the  State.  Each 
year  a  portion  of  this  amount  is  set  aside  as  a  permanent  building 
fund,  the  intention  being  to  raise  a  sufficient  sum  to  erect  a  build- 
ing, to  be  located  upon  a  lot  already  purchased. 

"As  soon  as  the  new  building  is  ready  the  trustees  expect  to 
announce  the  opening  of  a  day  school  with  particular  reference  to 
the  artistic  side  of  manufacturing.  Instruction  at  first  will  be 
given  in  drawing,  modelling  in  clay,  designing,  engraviug  and 
chasing  on  metals,  and  repousse  work.  The  course  of  study  will 
probably  extend  over  two  years,  and  applicants  who  are  fourteen 
years  of  age  or  older  will  be  received  without  reference  to  place  of 
residence." 

The  Newark  Technical  School  is  the  only  institution  operating 
under  the  law  of  1881.  Nevertheless,  a  great  interest  was  mani- 
fested in  the  subject  of  manual  training  by  the  leading  educators 
of  the  State,  and  some  cities  began  to  consider  the  adoption  of 
some  of  its  features  in  the  public  schools.  The  most  nocable  work 
of  this  kind  was  inaugurated  in  Montclair  under  the  direction  of 
Randall  Spaulding,  superintendent  of  schools,  who  says,  in  a 
letter  of  recent  date  :  — 

In  1881  the  town  of  Montclair  started  a  manual  training  movement,  on 
quite  a  definite  basis  and  without  any  aid  from  the  State.  A  special 
committee  was  appointed,  which  looked  up  the  subject  of  manual  train- 
ing; an  instructor  was  appointed  to  teach  pupils  from  the  grammar 
schools,  from  twelve  to  fourteen  years  of  age.  A  course  of  manual 
training  was  laid  out,  work  was  begun  on  Oct.  1,  1882,  and  the  seventh 
and  eighth  grade  grammar  scholars,  averaging  twelve  and  one-half 
years,  were  selected.  As  now  arranged,  instruction  is  given  to  both 
boys  and  girls  of  the  first-year  grammar  school  in  drawing  and  con- 
struction of  geometric  forms  and  in  clay  modelling,  to  the  second-year 
boys  in  carpentry,  and  to  the  third-year  boys  in  wood  carving.  While 
the  boys  are  in  the  Avorkshop  the  girls  receive  from  their  regular  teach- 
ers instruction  in  needle-work,  embroidery  and  plain  sewing.  They 
design  and  draw  patterns  and  then  transfer  them  to  the  goods,  then  they 
work  out  the  patterns  with  colored  wools  and  silk.  The  course  of  sew- 
ing occupies  three  years,  including  all  the  stitches  in  the  making  and 
repairing  of  garments.  In  the  higher  grade  more  advanced  lessons 
and  more  difficult  work  in  garment  making  are  given.    After  jjlain  sew- 


218  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

ing  comes  ornamental  work  to  some  extent,  the  Kensington  stitch  being 
chiefly  used.  The  pupils  invent  designs  sometimes,  and  select  patterns 
which  are  executed  in  scarfs  for  tables,  splashers,  bureau  covers,  etc. 
The  time  devoted  to  the  work  has  been  one  hour  twice  a  week  for 
three  years. 

The  aim  of  the  industrial  work  is  to  discipline  the  mind  through  the 
hand  and  the  eye.  The  shop  work  is  but  one  part  of  the  manual  train- 
ing begun  in  the  lowest  grade  and  continued  in  the  high ;  there  the 
pupils  are  given  laboratory  work  in  physics  and  chemistry,  and  en- 
couraged to  make  their  own  apparatus.  The  time  devoted  to  the  work 
has  been  one  hour  twice  a  week  in  school  hours. 

This  school  accommodates  all  the  grammar  and  high  school 
pupils  in  the  town,  and  is  located  in  two  buildings,  which  are 
about  to  give  way  for  a  new,  fine  building  now  being  erected  upon 
the  plans  of  the  well-known  Boston  architects,  Loring  &  Phipps. 

During  my  residence  in  New  Jersey  it  was  my  privilege  to  be 
quite  intimate  with  Mr.  Spaulding  and  to  frequently  visit  his 
school,  so  that  1  know  the  history  and  progress  of  the  work  from 
the  outset ;  but  since  my  return  to  Massachusetts  I  have  not  kept 
myself  informed  of  the  advancement  made  in  that  State,  and  have 
been  obliged  to  correspond  with  my  friends  there  to  enable  me  to 
prepare  for  this  interview.  I  shall  have  occasion  to  submit  to  you 
statements  from  superintendents  of  cities  and  from  the  State  Board 
of  Education.  Upon  the  subject  of  equipment,  Mr.  Spaulding 
says : — 

1.  Amoimt  raised  annually  by  taxation  for  manual  training  is  $1,000. 

2.  Amount  received  annually  from  the  State  for  manual  training  is 
$1,000. 

3.  Amount  spent  in  year  ending  Jvme  1, 1890,  $1,607  ;  in  year  ending 
June  1,  1891,  $1,550. 

4.  Nothing  sold,  and  no  receipts. 

5.  Present  equipment  as  follows :  Twenty-five  sets  of  carpenters' 
tools,  at  $25  a  set,  $250  ;  thirty-five  sets  of  wood-carving  tools,  at  $3.50 
a  set,  $122.50  ;  twelve  benches,  at  $19.25  each,  $231 ;  machinery,  engine, 
lattres,  vises,  etc.,  $2,000  ;  plumbing  for  engine,  $40  ;  building,  $1,000  ; 
total,  $3,643.50. 

The  ninth-grade  boys  have  cabinet  work,  eighth-grade  boys  have 
wood  carving,  ninth-grade  boys  have  machine  and  vise  work ;  ninth- 
grade  girls  have  wood  carving.  All  pupils  spend  two  hours  per  week 
in  manual  training,  —  that  is,  in  the  above-mentioned  grades. 

The  above  estimate  does  not  include  the  cooking  department,  nor  the 
advanced  clay  modelling. 

I  have  given  you  an  account  of  all  that  was  done  in  the  State 
under  the   act  of   1881,  viz.,   the  Newark  Technical   School.     I 


iifDUSTRiAL  educatio:n^.  219 

have  also  given  a  brief  account  of  the  work  in  Montclair,  which 
was  begun  without  State  aid,  but  which  has  continued  and  de- 
veloped under  the  second  act  of  legislation,  which  I  shall  now 
describe. 

The  first  law  was  enacted  to  stimulate  industrial  education, 
before  educators  and  legislators  comprehended  the  educational 
value  of  manual  occupation  as  a  feature  of  a  system  of  instruction. 

The  establishment  of  the  Industrial  Educational  Association  in 
New  York  and  the  founding  of  the  Manual  Training  School  at 
No.  9  University  Place,  which  has  since  developed  into  the  Col- 
lege for  the  Training  of  Teachers,  had  a  wide  influence  in  that 
pai"t  of  the  country.  Very  soon  after  this  association  got  to  work 
a  similar  one  was  organized  in  Hoboken,  known  as  the  New  Jersey 
Industrial  Educational  Association.  Leading  superintendents  and 
teachers  in  the  State  began  to  investigate  and  discuss  the  subject 
in  State  and  county  association  meetings.  An  impetus  was  given 
to  the  work  at  the  meeting  of  the  State  Teachers'  Association  at 
Trenton,  where  an  exhibition  of  all  kinds  of  scliool  work  was  dis- 
played, in  which  drawing,  manual  training,  kindergarten  work  and 
kindred  occupations  were  marked  features. 

Inasmuch  as  the  State  had  shown  a  disposition  to  foster  indus- 
trial education,  which  had  resulted  only  in  the  establishment  of 
one  technical  school,  the  leading  schoolmen  of  the  State  influenced 
the  Legislature  to  enact  a  law  designed  to  extend  State  aid  to  all 
localities  interested  in  organizing  manual  training  in  the  common 
schools.  By  an  act  approved  April,  1887,  it  was  provided  that, 
"Whenever,  in  any  school  district  in  this  State,  thei'e  shall  have 
been  raised  by  special  school  tax  or  by  subscription,  or  both,  a 
sum  of  money  not  less  than  one  thousand  dollars  for  the  establish- 
ment in  such  district  of  a  school  or  schools  for  industrial  educa- 
tion, or  for  the  purpose  of  adding  industrial  education  to  the 
course  of  study  now  pursued  in  the  school  or  schools  of  said  dis- 
trict, there  shall  be  appropriated  by  the  State,  out  of  the  income 
of  the  school  fund,  an  amount  equal  to  that  appropriated  by  the 
district  as  aforesaid,"  etc.  In  1888  this  law  was  amended,  and 
the  amount  to  be  raised  by  the  district  in  order  to  entitle  it  to  an 
appropriation  from  the  State  was  reduced  to  five  hundred  dollars. 
This  amendment  has  served  to  make  it  possible  for  some  of  the 
smaller  and  poorer  districts  to  avail  themselves  of  the  benefits  of 
the  law.  Already  a  number  of  school  districts  in  the  State  have 
taken  advantage  of  these  laws,  and  others  contemplate  doing  so. 
Montclair,  Paterson,  Vineland,  Morristown,  Orange,  Elizabeth 
and  other  places  have  already  complied  with  the  provisions  of  the 
law,  and  have  received  an  appropriation  from  the   State  school 


220  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

fund  in  aid  of  manual  training.  It  is  now  taught  in  tliose  districts 
as  a  part  of  the  public  school  curriculum.  That  it  is  abundantly 
successful  cannot  be  questioned,  for  the  testimony  to  its  success  is 
unanimous  on  the  part  of  the  teachers  and  school  officers  who  have 
studied  the  principles  on  which  it  is  based,  and  watclied  its  results. 

The  city  of  Paterson  was  one  of  the  first  to  take  advantage  of 
the  new  law.  In  the  fall  of  1887  the  subject  of  manual  training 
was  brought  to  the  attention  of  the  board  of  trade  and  to  the  citi- 
zens at  public  meetings,  and  a  joint  committee  was  appointed, 
which  raised  the  sum  of  $2,000  by  subscriptions,  thus  insuring  an 
additional  $2,000  from  the  State.  A  joint  committee  of  the  sub- 
scribers and  the  board  of  education  established  a  manual  training 
school  for  wood-work,  open  to  boys  of  the  high  school  and  the 
two  upper  grammar  grades.  In  addition  to  this,  a  teacher  of 
mechanical  drawing  was  appointed  for  the  high  school,  a  director 
of  drawing  for  the  whole  city  ;  and  a  part  of  the  funds  was-  appro- 
priated for  drawing  materials  and  kindergarten  supplies,  which 
had  previously  been  taken  from  the  general  school  appropriation. 
This  was  a  significant  fact,  and  its  approval  by  State  authority 
was  a  recognition  of  drawing  and  kindergarten  as  integral  parts 
of  a  system  of  manual  or  industrial  education.  To  confirm  this 
principle,  the  law  of  1888,  above  quoted,  was  passed. 

I  am  informed  that  each  year  since  my  leaving  Paterson,  in 
1888,  the  city  has  appropriated  $1,000  in  addition  to  the  usual 
school  funds,  and  that  the  State  has  contributed  a  like  sum.  This 
amount  has  been  used  in  the  payment  of  salaries,  the  original  fund 
having  been  sufficient  to  meet  the  running  expenses  of  the  depart- 
ment.    Nothing  has  been  added  to  the  original  plan. 

I  have  been  informed  by  the  State  board  of  education,  in  a 
letter  from  which  I  quote,  that  in  the  fiscal  year  ending  Oct.  1, 
1891,  the  sum  of  $11,454.66  was  raised  in  various  localities  in  the 
State  for  the  purpose  of  introducing  manual  training  instruction 
in  the  common  schools.  An  equal  sum  was  paid  to  these  localities 
by  the  State.  The  several  localities  and  the  sum  raised  by  each 
for  this  purpose  are  as  follows  :  West  Hoboken  raised  $500  ;  tow^n 
of  Union,  $554.66;  South  Orange,  $1,000;  District  Number  5, 
Essex  County,  $500;  Garfield,  $500;  Vineland,  $1,000;  Pater- 
son, $2,000;  Hoboken,  $2,000;  Montclair,  $1,000;  Orange, 
$1,900;  Morristown,  $500  ;  total,  $11,454.66. 

During  the  present  year  a  largely  increased  draft  will  be  made 
upon  the  State  school  fund  for  manual  training  instruction.  Not 
only  have  the  cities  of  Camden,  Elizabeth  and  Atlantic  City  intro- 
duced manual  training,  but  fifteen  rural  districts  have  done  the 
same  thins;. 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATIOlSr.  221 

Inasmuch  as  any  school,  rural  or  urban,  must  raise  not  less  than 
$500  in  order  to  receive  any  State  aid  at  all,  you  will  see  tliat  not 
less  than  $20,000  will  be  raised  in  the  State  of  New  Jersey  during 
the  present  year  for  manual  training,  and  an  equal  sum  will  be 
drawn  from  the  State  school  fund. 

Both  of  the  institutions  under  the  control  of  the  State  board  of 
education  have  manual  training  included  in  the  curriculum.  In 
the  School  for  Deaf  Mutes  manual  training  is  taught  largely  for 
its  value  as  a  basis  for  technical  instruction  later  ;  the  reasons  for 
this  are  obvious.  In  the  Normal  School,  however,  manual  train- 
ing is  taught  for  its  educational  value  alone.  Both  form  study  and 
drawing  and  mechanic  arts  constitute  independent  departments  of 
instruction,  and  a  professor  is  assigned  to  each.  There  is  no 
standing  committee  of  the  State  board  of  education  on  manual 
training,  bat  all  matters  relating  to  it  are  referred  to  the  com- 
mittee on  education,  which  has  charge  of  all  the  details  of  school 
administration.  You  will  therefore  see  that,  while  there  has  been 
no  legislation  to  enfoi-ce  manual  training  in  the  public  schools,  the 
method  taken  to  encourage  it  has  been  remarkably  successful. 

A- letter  from  the  superintendent  of  schools  in  Orange  will  speak 
for  the  work  in  that  city,  and  is  as  follows  :  — 

We  raised  by  special  tax  in  our  city,  in  1890,  for  the  year  1890-91, 
$1,800,  and  received  as  much  more  from  the  State.  The  sum  raised  by 
any  town  or  city  by  special  tax,  for  manual  training,  in  any  amount 
from  $500  to  $5,000,  is  dviplicated  bj^  the  State.  Last  year  we  raised 
$1,900,  and  received  as  much  more  from  tlie  State.  The  amount  ex- 
pended in  1890-91  was  $3,418.48.  The  fiscal  year  is  just  closing  for 
1891-92,  and  I  have  not  the  figures  before  me  ;  but  the  amount  spent  for 
manual  training  is  a  little  more  than  that  of  the  preceding  year.  We 
had  one  additional  teacher  during  the  past  year.  The  sum  expended 
pays  the  salaries  of  three  special  teachers.  Two  of  these  are  ladies, 
and  give  their  whole  time  to  the  work.  The  instructor  in  carpentry 
teaches  two  days  in  the  week.  The  expenditures  besides  are  for  rent 
of  six  rooms,  steam  and  gas,  material  for  the  parqueterie,  sewing,  clay 
work,  drawing  books  and  pencils,  carpentry,  cooking,  and  new  tools. 
All  grades  in  all  the  schools  have  the  training  in  some  form.  Drawing 
is  in  all  the  classes,  from  lowest  primary  to  the  last  year  in  the  high 
school.  The  weaving  and  parqueterie  and  clay  are  also  in  the  primary 
grades.  Sewing  begins  in  the  upper  primary  and  extends  through  the 
grammar  course.  Wood-work,  begun  by  second  grade  of  grammar,  is 
given  to  the  third  and  fourth  grammar,  and  all  the  high-school  boys. 
Cooking  is  taught  to  the  high-school  girls  of  first  and  second  years. 
The  time  of  lessons  at  the  shop  is  from  forty-five  minutes  in  younger 
grades  to  one  hour  in  the  older,  one  lesson  weekly.  The  cost  of  our 
plant  was  $3,008.36.    After  three  years'  use,  it  is  nearly  as  good  as  new. 


222  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

Extracts  from  a  report  of  a  special  committee  on  manual  train- 
ing of  the  New  Jersey  board  of  education  may  be  of  interest :  — 

We  would  especially  emphasize  the  necessity  of  recognizing  the  great 
distinction  which  exists  between  manual  training,  as  the  term  is  used  by 
educators,  and  trade  teaching.  Manual  training  is  not  trade  teaching, 
but  is  as  purelj'  educational  in  aim  and  method  as  is  the  instruction  in 
the  older  elementary  branches  by  the  side  of  which  it  is  rapidly  taking 
its  place.  By  manual  training,  when  properly  used,  is  meant  the  train- 
ing of  the  pupiPs  powers  of  expressing  thought  by  delineation  or  draw- 
ing, and  by  construction  or  making.  In  sound  educational  practice  the 
pupil  will  always  be  taught  to  connect  words  and  names  with  the  proc- 
esses and  things  which  they  designate  and  symbolize.  Manual  train- 
ing recognizes  tliis  principle,  and  gives  the  pupil  an  opportunity  to  learn 
to  express  his  thought  in  terms  of  things  and  objects  themselves  as  well 
as  in  words,  and  it  also  provides  a  training  for  his  judgment  and  execu- 
tive faculty.  The  schools  are  at  present  training  the  memory  and  the 
power  to  reason,  and  —  in  an  increasing  measure  —  the  fundamental 
power  of  sense-percejotion.  Until  they  include  inanual  training  in  their 
curriculum,  however,  they  will  continue  to  ignore  those  two  mental 
powers  whose  co-operation  is  so  important  to  practical  life,  —  the  judg- 
ment and  the  executive  faculty. 

We  find  that  the  term  "  industrial  education  "  is  used  in  a  varietj^  of 
senses,  but  more  properly  to  designate  an  education  in  which  manual 
training  is  incorporated.  There  are  serious  objections  to  the  use  of  the 
word  "  industrial "  in  this  couuection  at  all.  These  arise  in  part  from 
the  confusion  which  exists  in  the  popular  mind  between  it  and  the  word 
"  technical,"  and  in  part  from  the  fact  that  it  is  already  applied  to  re- 
form schools,  to  trade  schools  and  to  charitable  institutions  of  various 
kinds.  "\'\Tien  it  is  used  to  designate  an  education  which  includes  manual 
training,  it  signifies  merely  that  the  industries  of  the  coimtry  are  drawn 
upon  for  subject  matter  with  which  to  train  the  pupil's  power  of  judg- 
ment and  his  executive  faculty,  and  to  give  him  that  development  of  his 
active  powers  by  bringing  him  into  contact  with  things,  which  Avill  in- 
crease the  value  of  his  school  training  for  the  practical  purposes  of  life. 
Even  when  used  in  this  sense,  the  term  "  industrial  education "  is  an 
indefinite  and  misleading  one,  and  its  use  should  be  avoided. 

It  seems  to  us  desirable  also  that  the  State  board  of  education  should 
lay  down  certain  definite  rules  by  which  it  Avill  be  guided  in  the  future 
in  approving  or  disapproving  courses  of  study  in  manual  training  which 
come  before  it  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  chapter  38,  Laws  of 
1888,  section  1.  In  our  opinion,  this  approval  should  be  withheld  when- 
ever drawing  and  form  study  is  not  adequately  represented  in  the  pro- 
posed course  of  study.  It  should  also  be  withheld  unless  drawing  and 
form  study  is  supplemented  by  constructive  Avork  of  some  sort  or  grade. 
This  constructive  work  might  be  represented  by  kindergarten  or  by 
clay  work,  wood-working,  sewing  or  cooking.  By  establishing  such  a 
regulation  as  is  here  recommended,  the  intent  of  the  law  will  be  most 
efliciently  carried  out,  and  the  interests  of  the  school  be  best  served. 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  223 

In  reply  to  questions  put  by  the  members  of  the  Commission, 
Mr.  Meleuey  said  :  — 

1  assumed  the  office  of  superintendent  of  schools  in  Paterson, 
N.  J.,  in  1883.  The  kindergarten  we  established  during  1885-87. 
There  was  no  special  appropriation  for  kindergarten,  the  teachers' 
salaries  and  the  expense  of  material  coming  out  of  the  general 
appropriation.  It  was  not  recognized  as  a  separate  department, 
but  as  an  essential  feature  of  the  primary  schools.  In  my  judg- 
ment, there  should  be  no  distinction  of  grades  and  no  recognition 
of  the  kindergarten  as  a  department,  but  it  should  constitute  a 
grade  or  grades  of  the  primary  school.  To  young  ladies  from  the 
city  normal  training  school,  and  other  primary  teachers  who  seem 
to  be  naturally  fitted,  we  give  instruction  in  the  kindergarten  sys- 
tem, by  a  trained  expert,  to  fit  them  for  this  work.  In  addition 
to  that,  all  the  primary  teachers  in  the  city  we  instructed  in  the 
gifts,  occupations  and  games,  so  far  as  they  could  be  used  in  the 
primary  classes.  This  instruction  was  welcomed  by  the  teachers. 
I  do  not  think  that  any  other  city  in  the  State  has  established 
kindergartens. 

"  Is  drawing  generally  taught  in  the  New  Jersey  cities  and 
towns  ? "  Drawing  has  been  introduced  to  some  extent.  In 
Paterson  we  were  unable  to  do  anything  until  the  manual  training 
fund  was  established.  Newark,  Elizabeth,  Long  Branch  and 
Montclair,  and  I  think  Trenton,  had  done  very  well,  particularly 
Newark  under  the  direction  of  Miss  Fawcett.  Recently  Jersey 
City  has  made  some  progress  under  Mr.  Thompson. 

"Was  there  opposition  to  manual  training  in  Paterson  ?  "  No. 
The  movement  became  a  popular  one.  The  board  of  trade  cham- 
pioned it,  and  the  public  meeting  at  which  the  matter  was  brought 
to  the  attention  of  the  people  was  a  very  large  and  enthusiastic 
one.  The  following  year  the  city  government  made  a  special 
appropriation  for  it. 

"Manual  training  for  girls?"  I  do  not  know  of  anything  in 
the  line  of  manual  training  for  girls,  except  sewing  and  cooking, 
in  Orange  and  Montclair.  In  Paterson  we  introduced  sewing  into 
a  few  schools  in  1887,  and  in  the  spring  of  1888  the  board  of  edu- 
cation formally  adopted  a  system  of  sewing,  and  notice  was  sent 
to  all  the  schools  that  teachers  must  be  prepared  to  take  up  sewing 
as  a  part  of  the  school  instruction  for  girls  in  September  following. 

"  Do  you  think  that  manual  training  interferes  with  the  progress 
of  other  studies  ?  "  No,  I  do  not.  After  considerable  experience 
and  vei-y  careful  observation,  I  believe  that  manual  training  is  a 
stimulus  to  the  progress  of  the  school  in  other  directions.  It  adds 
interest  to  school,  stimulates  observation  and  thought,  and  fur- 
nishes another  mode  of  expression. 


224  MANUAL    TKAINING   AND 


Appendix  K. 


MANUAL   TRAINING  IN  LONDON.* 


At  a  meeting  of  the  commission,  Nov.  5,  1891,  two  teachers  of 
manual  training  who  were  on  a  visit  in  Boston,  Miss  Nystrom 
of  Sweden  and  Miss  Chapman  of  London,  were  present  by  invi- 
tation and  gave  evidence  in  substance  as  follows  :  — 

We  are  teachers  of  sloycl  or  hand-craft  in  London.  We  train  teachers 
for  this  branch  of  school  work ;  and  during  the  last  two  years,  in  an 
institute  of  our  own,  we  have  tried  our  ideas  and  methods  on  large 
classes  of  children  from  neighboring  high,  middle  and  elementary 
schools 

The  form  of  sloyd  we  have  observed  here  in  America  represents  only 
a  very  small  part  of  the  Swedish  system.  "When  we  speak  of  sloyd,  we 
mean  everything  that  can  be  done  in  schools  by  hand-work.  There  is 
nothing  really  fixed  about  the  system.  If  you  travel  over  Sweden  you 
find  in  different  localities  the  Same  j^rinciples,  but  different  methods  and 
purposes  to  suit  varying  local  needs.  In  Sweden  there  are  from  four- 
teen hundred  to  fifteen  hundred  schools  in  which  the  system  is  carried 
on.  The  population  of  London  is  very  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  all 
Sweden.  Therefore,  when  we  say  that  we  have  the  system  carried  on 
in  fourteen  hundred  or  fifteen  hundred  schools  in  London,  it  is  equal  to 
the  amount  of  work  done  in  Sweden  at  the  present  time. 

The  main  difference  between  the  Danish  and  the  Russian  systems  of 
sloyd  on  the  one  hand  and  the  Swedish  sloyd  on  the  other  is  that  in  the 
latter  we  make  complete  and  useful  things,  while  in  the  two  former  we 
work  exercises  only,  and  jjay  little  or  no  regard  to  the  usefulness  of  the 
articles  made.  The  Russian  and  Danish  systems  are  a  little  nearer  the 
trade-school  idea  than  is  the  Swedish.  AVe  do  not  see  why  the  two 
systems  should  not  be  amalgamated. 

Our  experience  with  the  Swedish  system  demonstrates,  we  believe, 
that  it  is  not  very  wise  to  require  children  to  make  a  finished  useful 
object  every  time  without  any  practising  exercises.  We  have  been  con- 
tinually occupied  with  this  question  of  making  finished  objects  ;  and  our 

*  Report  of  the  remarks  made  before  the  Commission  Ijy  Miss  Nystrom  of  Sweden 
and  Miss  Chapman  of  London  on  the  teaching  of  sloyd. 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION".  225 

observation  has  been  that  if  a  child  is  allowed  to  begin  and  make  com- 
plete articles  immediately,  without  some  previous  practice,  he  cannot 
be  expected  to  produce  very  good  work.  This  has  been  the  stumbling 
block  in  the  Swedish  system. 

Another  defect  in  the  S^vedish  system  is  the  lack  of  mechanical  draw- 
ing. In  our  school  in  London  we  carry  on  our  wood-work  with  draw- 
ing. We  have  very  simple  and  ijrimitive  drawings  on  the  wood.  The 
children  draw  forms  on  their  blocks,  and  then  work  them  out.  In  Stock- 
holm drawing  has  been  tried  in  only  a  few  schools.  Mr  Salomon,  the 
director  at  Xalis,  set  his  face  from  the  beginning  against  drawing,  con- 
sidering it  too  difficult,  and  preferring  to  work  from  the  model  or  pattern 
directly.  For  instance,  in  working  to  curved  lines,  as  in  a  wooden 
spoon,  the  lines  are  soon  cut  away,  and  the  worker  is  left  to  his  eye  and 
his  model. 

Being  asked  why  the  Swedes  were  so  very  particular  about  having 
every  article  they  undertook  completed,  and  why  they  rejected  all  mere 
exercises  in  their  sloyd  instruction.  Miss  Nystrom  stated  that  in  her 
opinion  it  was  owing  to  their  previous  history  as  a  people.  In  SAveden 
for  hundreds  of  j^ears  they  had  had  handy  men  making  and  perfecting 
things.  During  the  long  winter  evenings  they  were  making  agricult- 
ural implements  and  doing  industrial  work.  They  did  not  have  so 
much  machinery  nor  so  many  technological  schools  as  in  other  coun- 
tries, but  gave  more  time  to  hand-work  than  other  people  were  able  or 
willing  to  give.  Hence  it  was  a  national  habit  to  make  useful  things  by 
hand- work. 

The  school  at  Niias  in  Sweden  is  a  training  school  for  teachers.  There 
are  smaller  schools  of  the  same  kind  scattered  all  over  Sweden.  These 
have  been  started  by  Niias  graduates,  and  of  course  propagate  the  Naiis 
methods  of  teaching.  Mr.  Salomon,  the  director  of  the  Naiis  training 
school,  prefers  regular  exioerienced  teachers  for  his  pupils,  but  in  fact 
welcomes  everybody  who  comes  to  learn,  and  grants  certificates  to  all 
who  do  the  work  well.  He  has  no  permanent  corps  of  teachers,  but  is 
himself  permanent,  and  does  certain  parts  of  the  teaching,  particularly 
the  lecturing  on  the  principles  of  sloyd.  There  is  really  no  instruction 
in  drawing.  If  pupils  like  to  use  drawing,  well ;  if  not,  well,  also.  The 
school  is  supported  by  Mr.  Salomon's  uncle,  who  is  a  wealthy  man.  It 
is  resorted  to  every  summer  by  teachers  from  all  over  Sweden  and  from 
many  foreign  lands. 

AATien  we  started  on  our  sloyd  work  in  London,  our  efforts  were 
directed  to  training  classes  of  teachers,  who  gave  up  their  summer  holi- 
days for  the  purpose.  AVe  soon  found  that  the  Swedish  methods  of  work 
would  require  alteration  to  suit  them  to  English  needs  and  character. 
The  models,  too,  did  not  interest  the  children.  We  have  therefore  made 
many  changes,  gradually  feeling  our  way,  studying  very  carefully  all 
systems,  observing  particularly  what  has  been  done  by  our  London 
school  board,  and  endeavoring  to  gather  good  ideas  from  all  sources. 
We  have  been  much  cheered  by  the  amount  of  interest  excited,  espe- 
cially among  teachers,  who  in  many  instances  at  first  were  our  most 
bitter  opponents,  but  who  afterwards  expressed  their  warmest  sympathy. 


226  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

The  children  were  interested  from  the  first,  and  their  interest  has  con- 
tinued unabated. 

As  to  age,  our  children  range  from  ten  to  fourteen.  We  have  not 
admitted  any  younger  than  ten.  We  hope,  however,  to  work  out  an 
elementary  series  of  wood- working  exercises  for  younger  children,  and 
then  we  shall  admit  younger  pvipils  than  we  do  now. 

The  boys  sent  to  us  are  generally  picked  boys  from  the  board  schools. 
During  their  absence  from  their  regular  classes  their  classmates  go  on 
with  the  regular  school  work.  The  boys  are  picked  out  bj^  the  masters, 
who  usually  send  the  boys  that  can  best  be  spared,  on  account  of  their 
high  standing.  Occasionally  they  send  boys  who  can  best  be  spared  on 
account  of  roguishness  ;  and  these  we  have  fovmd  to  be  our  best  workers. 

The  length  of  our  course  we  thinlv  ought  to  be  three  or  four  years, 
two  hours  a  week  from  September  to  June  ;  but  our  own  school  has  not 
been  quite  two  years  in  operation. 

Regarding  our  manner  of  work,  we  begin  with  the  knife  and  saw, 
which  should  be  the  first  tools.  We  have  class  exercises  from  the 
beginning.  Taking  the  saw,  we  explain  its  construction,  answer  all 
their  questions,  show  them  the  right  position  to  take  in  vising  it,  and 
then  let  them  practise  on  a  piece  of  wood.  Afterward  each  boy  receives 
a  piece  of  wood,  and  all  taking  the  right  position  saw  in  time,  —  or  try 
to.  We  use  the  curved  motion  in  sawing,  to  avoid  contracting  the  chest. 
We  are  exceedingly  anxious  to  make  use  of  the  gymnastic  exercises 
which  we  get  from  Copenhagen.  It  is  very  important  that  classes  be 
started  in  the  habit  of  standing  properly.  As  every  new  tool  brings 
into  exercise  a  new  set  of  muscles  and  requires  new  attitudes,  only  a 
very  few  tools  can  be  introduced  the  first  few  weeks,  if  proper  attention 
is  paid  to  the  attitudes.  In  the  sawing,  for  example,  the  boys,  having 
placed  their  boards  in  position  and  having  taken  the  right  attitudes,  all 
saw  first  with  the  right  hand,  all  in  time  ;  then,  changing  attitude  and 
taking  the  saw  in  the  left  hand,  again  saw  all  in  time.  Thus  everj'-  part 
of  the  body  gets  proper  exercise.  Working  together  in  this  way  with 
a  certain  amount  of  competition,  they  attain  much  more  precision.  It 
is  a  sort  of  military  drill.  There  is  no  idleness ;  everything  is  done 
quickly ;  and  we  expect  our  boys  to  be  at  their  best  all  the  time  they 
are  at  work.  They  work  always  imder  directions,  and  are  never  allowed 
to  take  tools  without  permission. 

With  the  knife  we  give  a  long  piece  of  wood,  and  allow  the  boys  to 
ask  whatever  questions  they  wish.  They  then  practise  in  cutting,  acquir- 
ing a  good  long  cutting  stroke  ;  and  we  tell  them  to  make  whatever  they 
wish.  When  we  think  they  can  cut  well,  Ave  tell  them  what  to  do.  We 
show  them  a  model,  and  say  we  want  one  like  it,  so  long  and  so  wide. 
They  have  little  memorandum  books  in  which  they  note  down  the  meas- 
urements. We  have  no  "  working  drawings."  Of  course  I  can  go  to 
the  black-board  and  make  a  rapid  sketch  of  the  object  for  them,  but 
there  is  no  need  of  drawing  any  plans  or  dimensions,  —  that  comes  later 
on.  The  first  thing  they  make  is  a  little  towel  horse.  We  allow  them 
to  cut  the  measurements  on  wood,  but  they  do  not  go  farther  than  they 
are  told.     If  we  find  the  majority  of  the  class  have  finished,  we  take  the 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  227 

whole  class  farther  along,  letting  those  who  are  behind  renaember  what 
they  can,  and  get  further  instruction  later. 

The  age  at  which  children  begin  the  drawing  of  objects  on  paper  is 
about  ten  years.  After  a  few  weeks'  instruction  they  can  make  simple 
mechanical  (working)  drawings.  It  is  considered  a  waste  of  time  to 
draw  both  on  paper  and  on  the  wood  ;  the  latter  is  enough  in  most  in- 
stances. The  pupil's  interest  flags  if  he  is  required  to  do  his  drawing 
twice  over;  he  is  in  haste  to  go  on  to  the  next  model,  and  we  let  him 
do  it. 

The  classes  in  our  London  board  schools  number  from  fifty  to  seventy 
pupils.  There  is  no  rule  limiting  the  size  of  classes.  The  upper  classes 
are  smaller  than  the  lower,  because  the  boys  drop  out  as  they  become 
old  enough  to  work. 

Efl'orts  are  now  making  to  train  the  masters  of  the  regular  classes  so 
that  they  may  teach  the  manual  training.  It  is  expected  that  masters 
so  trained  will  be  able  to  manage  and  teach  their  classes  in  detachments 
of  from  twenty-five  to  thirty.  A  class  of  fifty-six  could  probably  be 
taught  in  two  equal  detachments. 

The  London  school  board  is  holding  classes  for  the  training  of  teachers 
In  wood-working  twice  a  week  at  difterent  centres.  Only  men  are  ad- 
mitted to  these  classes,  there  being  on  the  part  of  the  board  no  intention 
of  employing  women  for  this  kind  of  teaching.  Men  are  considered  to 
be  much  better  adapted  to  the  work.  It  is  not  proposed  to  introduce 
wood-working  into  the  girls'  schools,  as  the  girls  already  have  needle- 
work and  cooking,  and  soon  will  have  laundry  work. 

We  have  made  some  changes  in  the  sloyd  to  adapt  it  to  English 
children,  who  apparently  work  more  quickly  and  less  patiently  than 
the  Swedish  children  do.  We  hold  our  children  to  a  high  standard  of 
accuracy.  In  all  cases  when  a  child  is  to  make  an  article  we  show  him 
one  completed,  take  it  apart  and  explain  all  the  parts  to  him.  This 
method  appeals  to  that  love  of  production  which  we  all  have,  and 
,  arouses  the  ambition  of  the  child  to  make  an  entire  object,  which  would 
not  be  the  case  were  he  only  allowed  to  make  parts  of  an  object.  We 
favor  the  use  of  few  tools  rather  than  of  many,  believing  that  we  can 
obtain  greater  skill  in  a  given  tixne  in  that  way, 

The  London  school  board  will  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  "  sloyd 
system,"  so  called,  but  is  doing  a  good  deal  for  "  hand-craft."  This 
hand-craft  (a  word,  by  the  way,  we  much  prefer  to  sloyd)  is  a  system 
which  the  board  is  working  out  in  the  London  schools  quite  indepen- 
dently. It  is  more  like  the  Russian  shop  work  than  Swedish  sloyd.  It 
is  based  on  drawing  from  the  very  beginning,  and  the  manual  consists 
chiefly  of  exercises.* 

*  Since  this  statement  was  made,  full  information  as  to  the  character  of  the  wood- 
working in  the  London  schools  has  appeared  in  a  recently  publislied  book;  entitled 
"  Wood-work  (the  English  sloyd),  by  S.  Barter,  organizer  and  instructor  of  manual 
training  in  wood-work  to  the  London  school  board,  and  organizing  instructor  to  the 
joint  committee  on  manual  training  in  wood  work  of  the  school  board  for  London, 
the  city  and  guilds  of  London  Technical  Institute,  and  the  Worshipful  Company  of 
Drapers.    With  302  illustrations.    Preface  by  George  Ricks,  B.Sc.  Lond.    London; 


228  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

There  is  at  present  very  little  printed  matter  available  for  the  study 
of  manual  training  in  England  The  whole  subject  is  in  a  tentative, 
experimental  and  imsettled  condition.  Everything  depends  on  the  de- 
velopment of  teachers.  Mere  artisans  cannot  be  the  teachers  of  sloyd, 
for  they  know  nothing  of  its  educational  aims.  Regular  teachers,  on  the 
other  hand,  seldom  have  the  necessary  skill  to  command  the  confidence 
of  their  classes.  We  have  observed  some  mifortunate  instances  of 
teachers  who  have  been  rushed  through  the  training  classes,  and  then, 
with  little  or  no  experience  in  sloyd  teaching,  never  having  been  re- 
quired to  reproduce  imaided  and  on  their  own  responsibility  the  work 
they  had  been  taught,  placed  in  positions  as  fully  competent  teachers. 
We  are  likely  to  suffer  from  too  low  an  estimate  of  the  mechanical  skill 
necessary  for  i-egular  teachers  to  acquire  in  order  to  become  good 
teachers  of  sloyd  ;  just  as  we  have  suffered  from  underestimating  the 
teaching  skill  that  an  artisan  should  possess  for  the  same  purpose. 
What  we  want  is  the  easy  facility  of  the  artisan  and  the  pedagogical 
knowledge  of  the  teacher  united  in  one  person  of  high  character. 

Clay  modelling  and  free-hand  drawing  ought  both  to  be  made  parts 
of  the  course  for  training  teachers.  We  are  getting  to  be  altogether  too 
mechanical.  We  are  not  enough  accustomed  to  judge  of  distances  and 
dimensions  without  measurements.  Every  good  teacher  should  be  able 
to  go  to  the  black-board  and  make  a  rapid  sketch  of  the  object  the  class 
is  making. 

Note.  —  It  is  but  fair  to  say  that  the  above  report  has  never 
been  revised  by  the  ladies  who  favored  the  Commission  with  their 
remarks,  and  that  the  stenographic  report  was  somewhat  confused 
and  imperfect.  To  the  best  of  my  recollection  and  belief,  how- 
ever, the  substance  of  what  was  said  has  been  given  accurately. 
—  Edwin  P.  Seaver. 


Wbittaker  &  Co.  1892."  This  book  conclusively  shows  that  the  worlc  in  "English 
sloyd"  consists  almost  wholly  of  finished  articles,  and  that  mere  "exercises"  are 
very  few  in  number  The  relation  of  this  English  to  Swedish  sloyd  may  be  learned 
from  these  few  words  of  Mr.  E.icks  in  the  preface :  "  The  author  of  this  book  has 
invited  me  to  write  a  short  preface,  doubtless  partly  because  I  have  taken  the  most 
active  interest  in  the  introduction  of  manual  training  into  public  elementary  schools 
as  a  necessary  part  of  the  school  curriculum,  and  partly  because  I  was  the  first  to 
suggest  the  introduction  of  a  modification  of  the  Naas  sloyd  into  the  wood-work 
classes  conducted  under  the  joint  aus'-'ces  of  the  city  and  guilds  of  London  Institute 
and  the  school  board  for  London,  in  which  classes  the  author  was  a  distinguished 
teacher.  I  gladly  accept  the  invitation,  for  two  reasons:  (1)  I  am  anxious  to 
acknowledge  to  the  full  our  great  mdebtedness  to  the  Swedish  sloyd.  In  his  intro- 
duction the  author  points  to  certain  defects  in  this  system  when  measured  by  our 
special  wants  and  changed  conditions;  but,  nevertheless,  the  fact  remains  that, 
without  the  sloyd,  we  should  probably  have  taken  some  years  to  work  out  such  a 
scheme  as  that  so  graphically  portrayed  in  the  following  pages." 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION.  229 


Appendix  L. 


MANUAL  TRAENING  IN  ENGLISH   SCHOOLS. 

By  Sir  PHILIP  MAGNUS, 
Director  of  the  City  and  Guilds  of  London  Technical  Institute. 


Manual  training  is  at  length  recognized  *  as  a  part  of  the  Eng- 
lish system  of  public  elementary  education.  When  we  remember 
the  opposition  with  which  the  suggestion  that  workshops  should 
be  introduced  into  British  schools  was  met,  we  have  reason  to  be 
satisfied  with  the  progress  which  the  movement  in  favor  of  manual 
training  has  made  during  the  last  few  years. 

It  was  in  1882  that  the  Eoyal  Commissioners  on  Technical  In- 
struction, impressed  with  the  educational  value  of  workshop  train- 
ing in  the  schools  which  they  had  visited  in  France,  suggested  in 
their  preliminary  report,  that,  by  way  of  experiment,  manual  in- 
struction might  be  introduced  into  a  few  of  the  elementary  schools 
of  England.  In  1884,  after  they  had  had  opportunities  of  further 
considering  the  beneficial  effect  of  workshop  training,  they  recom- 
mended in  their  first  report  that  instruction  in  the  use  of  ordinary 
tools  should  form  part  of  elementary  education,  and  should  be 
subsidized  out  of  State  funds  by  means  of  grants,  much  in  the 
same  way  as  is  the  teaching  of  cookery  and  needle-work. 

This  suggestion  met  with  considerable  opposition  and  some 
ridicule,  owing  mainly  to  the  incorrect  views  which  prevailed  as 
to  the  advantages  to  be  secured  by  workshop  instruction.  We 
were  told  that  the  trade  unions  would  object  to  the  undue  increase 
in  the  number  of  carpenters  and  joiners  which  would  follow  from 
the  encouragement  proposed  to  be  given  to  the  teaching  of  wood- 
work in  ordinary  schools  ;  that  the  school  was  not  the  proper  place 
for  teaching  trades  ;  that  slip-shod  habits  of  work  would  be  formed  ; 
and  that  the  time  devoted  to  literary  instruction  was  already  too 
short,  and  would  be  further  curtailed  by  the  introduction  of  a  new 

*  In  the  year  1890. 


230  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

subject  into  an  overcrowded  curriculum.  Many  even  who  favored 
the  movement  did  so  on  the  erroneous  ground  that  the  children  of 
the  poor  were  being  over-educated,  and  that  it  was  a  good  thing 
that  they  should  learn  a  trade  at  school ;  and  it  was  suggested 
that  the  trade  to  be  taught  should  be  that  practised  in  the  district 
in  which  the  school  was  situated.  The  removal  of  these  incorrect 
views  was  no  easy  matter.  In  1886  Sir  John  Lubbock  wrote  an 
interesting  article  on  the  subject  in  the  "Fortnightly  Review," 
which  was  followed  by  a  paper  of  my  own  in  the  "  Contemporary 
Eeview,"  embodying  the  views  I  had  previously  expressed  at  the 
Birmingham  meeting  of  the  British  Association.  In  the  following 
year,  in  order  to  give  the  experiment  a  fair  trial,  the  City  and 
Guilds  of  London  Institute,  with  funds  placed  at  their  disposal  by 
the  Drapery  Company,  offered  to  the  school  board  for  London  the 
sum  of  one  thousand  pounds  for  the  establishment  of  centres  of 
instruction  in  the  use  of  wood-working  tools.  They  had  previously 
made  arrangements  by  which  teachers  of  elementary  schools  might 
undergo  a  systematic  course  of  carpentry  instruction  at  their  Cen- 
tral Technical  Institution  ;  and  the  number  of  teachers  who  applied 
for  admission  to  the  course  was  far  greater  than  the  workshops  of 
the  institution  could  accommodate.  A  joint  committee  was  formed 
of  members  of  tlie  school  board  and  of  the  City  Guilds  Institute  ; 
and  the  organization  and  direction  of  the  instruction  was  left  to 
this  committee.  The  first  question  to  be  decided  arose  out  of  the 
selection  of  a  teacher.  There  were  some  who  urged  that  the  most 
fitting  person  to  teach  carpentry  was  an  experienced  carpenter. 
Others  pointed  out  that  the  object  of  the  instruction  was  not  to 
make  carpenters,  but  to  train  the  hand  and  eye,  and  that  the  best 
instructor  would  be  a  person  skilled  in  the  art  of  teaching  and 
practically  acquainted  with  the  use  of  tools.  The  old  battle  had 
to  be  fought  again  between  the  advocates  of  manual  training  as  a 
part  of  apprenticeship  to  a  trade,  and  those  who  regarded  it  simply 
as  an  educational  discipline,  and  as  a  necessary  part  of  the  ele- 
mentary instruction  of  all  children. 

A  very  hapi)y  compromise  was  effected.  Six  centres  were 
formed,  three  on  the  north  and  three  on  the  south  side  of  the 
Thames,  and  two  very  competent  instructors  were  found, — the 
one  a  skilled  artisan,  who  had  distinguished  himself  as  a  science 
teacher  in  evening  classes,  and  the  other  a  trained  elementary 
school  teacher,  who  had  gone  through  a  course  of  carpentry  les- 
sons at  the  Central  Institution.  The  experiment  has  proved  most 
successful.  The  opposition  to  manual  training  as  a  part  of  sciiool 
education  has  practically  ceased,  and  a  new  era  of  elementary 
school  teacliing  has  been  inaugurated.     Ministers,  statesmen,  gov- 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  231 

ernment  officials  and  educationists  have  visited  the  centres  and 
have  seen  the  children  at  work,  and  have  expressed  their  satisfac- 
tion with  the  value  of  the  training,  not  only  as  encouraging  a  taste 
for  handicraft,  and  helping  to  inculcate  the  lesson  of  the  dignity 
of  manual  labor,  but  as  an  intellectual  exercise  and  educational 
discipline.  The  success  of  the  experiment  verified  the  theories 
of  every  progressive  educationist,  from  Locke  to  Huxley,  and 
naturally  assisted  the  Natural  Association  for  the  Promotion  of 
Technical  Education  in  their  endeavors  to  obtain  the  recognition 
by  Parliament  of  manual  training  as  a  part  of  primary  instruction. 
The  battle  is  now  won.  The  new  Code,  which  Parliament  issued 
this  year,  and  which  regulates  the  State-aided  instruction  through- 
out the  country,  recognizes  manual  training  as  a  part  of  public 
elementary  education.  It  provides  that  manual  instruction  may 
be  given  in  the  school  premises  or  elsewhere,  and  whether  or  not 
by  the  ordinary  teachers  of  the  school,  and  it  suggests  that  manual 
instruction  should  be  given  in  conjunction  with  drawing.  The 
effect  of  this  inclusion  of  manual  instruction  among  the  subjects 
recognized  by  the  Code  is  that  the  cost  of  the  instruction  may  be 
defrayed  out  of  the  ordinary  school  board  funds  derived  from  the 
rates.  Previously  no  part  of  the  general  school  fund  could  be 
applied  to  the  provision  of  manual  instruction,  that  subject  not 
being  recognized  as  coming  within  the  parliamentary  definition  of 
public  elementary  education.  In  the  circular  which  is  issued  as  a 
guide  to  the  inspectors  in  giving  effect  to  the  provision  of  the  Code 
occurs  the  following  important  paragraph  on  manual  training  :  — 

The  difficulty  which  has  hitherto  prevented  the  recognition  of  manual 
training  as  part  of  the  ordinary  course  of  instruction  in  a  public  ele- 
mentary school  has  been  removed  by  the  alteration  in  the  terms  of  Art. 
12  (f).  In  some  foreign  schools  manual  exercises  in  continuation  of 
the  employments  of  the  kindergarten,  and  graduated  in  difficulty,  are 
carried  onward  through  all  the  classes  of  the  school,  and  are  found  to  be 
not  Avithout  a  useful  reflex  influence  on  all  the  ordinary  school  studies. 
Such  exercises  sometimes  consist  of  modelling,  the  cutting,  fixing  and 
inventing  of  paper  patterns,  the  forming  of  geometrical  solids  in  card- 
board, and  the  use  of  tools  and  instruments.  Although  no  special  grant 
is  made  by  this  department  for  such  instruction,  you  will  watch  with 
care  the  working  of  any  experiment  which  is  made  in  this  direction, 
and  will  report  upon  it. 

The  use  of  the  expression  "this  department"  was  thought  to 
imply  that  the  department  of  the  committee  of  council  on  edu- 
cation, which  has  the  direction  of  scientific  and  technical  instruc- 
tion, and  is  known  as  the  "  science  and  art  department,"  might  be 


232  MA:NruAL  training  and 

enabled  to  make  especial  grants  from  the  imperial  fund  in  aid  of 
manual  training  ;  and  this  expectation  has  been  fulfilled.  The 
science  and  art  department,  in  the  directory  for  1890,  offers,  under 
certain  conditions,  a  grant  of  six  shillings  or  seven  shillings,  accord- 
ing to  the  quality  of  the  work  done,  for  every  scholar  in  a  public 
elementary  school  who  is  receiving  manual  instruction,  provided 
that  the  instruction  so  aided  is  :  (a)  in  the  use  of  ordinary  tools 
used  in  handicraft  in  wood  and  iron;  (6)  given  out  of  school 
hours  in  a  properly  fitted  workshop  ;  and  (c)  connected  with  the 
instruction  in  drawing  ;  that  is  to  say,  the  work  must  be  from 
drawings  to  scale  previously  made  by  the  scholars. 

A  note  to  clause  b  explains  that  the  expression  "  out  of  school 
hours  "  means  only  that  the  manual  instruction  shall  be  in  addition 
to,  and  shall  not  be  taken  out  of,  the  minimum  of  'twenty  hours 
per  week  to  be  given  to  the  teaching  of  other  subjects  included  in 
the  Code.  It  is,  however,  a  condition  for  obtaining  the  grant  from 
the  imiperial  funds  that  each  scholar  shall  have  passed  the  fourth 
standard,  and  shall  have  received  manual  instruction  for  at  least 
two  hours  a  week  for  twenty-two  weeks  during  the  school  year. 

As  regards  the  advantage  of  associating  manual  instruction  with 
drawing,  every  one  is  agreed  ;  but  difference  of  opinion  exists  as 
to  the  advisableness  of  insisting  on  a  minimum  of  two  hours'  in- 
struction a  week.  In  many  places,  notably  in  Liverpool,  w^here 
manual  instruction  has  been  successfully  given,  it  has  been  found 
that  a  lesson  of  one  hour  and  a  half,  once  a  week,  is  sufficient, 
and  efforts  will  be  made  to  obtain  a  modification  of  the  rule  on  this 
point. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  legislation  of  this  year  enables  the  school 
board  rates  to  be  employed  in  defraying  the  cost  of  manual  in- 
struction, and  also  provides  grants  from  the  imperial  funds  in  aid 
of  such  instruction.  The  latter  subvention  is  most  important,  for 
without  it  manual  instruction  might  have  been  restricted  to  the 
board  schools,  in  which  less  than  one-half  of  the  children  of  the 
people  are  educated.  The  voluntary  or  denominational  schools 
receive  no  aid  from  the  rates,  but  they  equally  with  the  board 
schools  .obtain  grants  from  imperial  funds.  Not  only,  therefore, 
is  manual  instruction  recognized  by  the  new  Code  as  a  part  of  ele- 
mentary education,  but  the  teaching  is  directly  subsidized  by  the 
State. 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION.  233 


Appendix  M. 


MISCELLANEOUS  MATTERS. 


Boston  Manual  Training  Course. 
Class  III.     (First  Tear.) 

1.  Clay  modelling  of  sphere,  cube  and  cj'^linder,  and  of  familiar 
objects  approaching  these  types  {e.g.,  apple,  nest,  basket,  box, 
house,  stove,  bottle,  rolling-pin,  muff)  ;  also  of  hemisphere,  square 
prism  and  triangular  prism,  and  of  familiar  objects  approaching 
these  types  (e.  g.,  bowl,  spoon,  saucer,  cake,  brick,  steps,  cradle, 
boat,  stool). 

2.  Paper  folding  and  cutting  of  faces,  edges  and  sections  of 
the  above-named  solids,  in  blue,  red  and  yellow  papers,  carefully 
measured  and  divided,  with  study  of  squares,  circles,  angles  and 
lines. 

3.  Sewing  in  colored  threads  (blue,  red,  yellow)  on  coarse 
cloth  or  canvas  (stitches  over  and  under,  counting  threads),  in 
vertical,  horizontal  and  oblique  lines,  the  same  in  parallel  lines, 
and  in  outline  forms,  as  in  paper  folding. 

4.  Stick  laying,  preceding,  and  conformed  to,  the  regular 
drawing  lessons  for  this  grade. 

Class  II.      (Secoyid   Year.) 

1.  Clay  modelling  of  the  ovoid,  ellipsoid,  cone  and  square 
pyramid,  and  of  plant  and  animal  forms  approaching  these  types 
{e.g.,  leaf,  petal,  corolla,  seed  vessels,  heads  and  trunks  of  vari- 
ous animals,  bills  of  birds,  eggs) . 

2.  Paper  folding  and  catting,  in  colored  papers  (red,  blue, 
yellow,  orange,  violet,  green) ,  of  plane  figures  made  by  sections 
of  the  above-named  solids,  and  of  plant  and  animal  outlines  ap- 
proaching these  types  {e.g.,  leaf,  sections  of  fruit,  flower,  seeds, 
star-fish,  shells)  ;  also  of  bilateral  and  radiate  designs  based  upon 
these,  for  decorative  work. 


234  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

3.  Sewing  on  canvas,  with  colored  threads,  on  the  same  lines 
of  development  as  in  the  paper  cutting. 

4.  Stick  laying,  preceding,  and  conformed  to,  the  drawing  les- 
sons for  this  grade. 

Class  I.     (Third  Year.) 

1.  Clay  modelling  of  symmetrical  designs  on  plaques,  and  of 
plant  and  animal  forms  in  relief  on  plaques,  or  as  models  for  art. 

2.  Paper  folding  and  cutting  in  all  colors,  tints  and  shades, 
for  harmony  of  color  and  beaut}'  of  design ;  also  in  bilateral 
curves  confoi'med  to  the  drawing  lessons  for  this  grade. 

3.  Sewing  on  soft  cloth,  in  colored  worsteds,  for  harmony  of 
color,  beauty  of  design  and  free  use  of  curved  lines. 

4.  Light  card-board  construction  work,  modifications  of  type 
forms,  for  use  or  beauty ;  representations  of  toys,  utensils,  furni- 
ture, etc.,  with  the  use  of  glue. 


Manual  Training  Course  laid  down  by  New  England  Super- 
intendents' Association. 

First  Year.  —  Clay  modelling  typical  forms,  corresponding 
forms  in  nature ;  paper  folding  and  cutting ;  stick  laying  ;  sew- 
ing ;  drawing. 

Second  Year.  —  Clay  modelling ;  paper  folding  and  cutting  ; 
peas  and  sticks  ;  drawing. 

Third  Year.  —  Clay  modelling  ;  paper  folding  and  cutting ; 
cloth  and  card  cutting  ;  drawing ;  color. 

Fourth  Year.iz —  Clay  modelling  ;  paper,  card-board  and  cloth  ; 
sewing  on  card-board  and  cloth ;  color. 

Fifth  Year.  —  Clay  modelling  on  tiles  and  maps ;  paper  and 
card-board  construction  ;  drawing  ;  sewing  ;  color. 

Sixth  Year.  —  Clay  modelling ;  paper,  card-board  and  soft 
wood  ;  drawing  ;  sewing. 

Seventh  Year.  —  Clay  connected  with  science  and  geography ; 
drawing  ;  sewing  ;  cooking. 

Eighth  and  Ninth  Years.  —  Clay  ;  wood-work  (sloyd)  ;  drawing. 


Manual  Training  Exhibit  from  Washington  Schools.* 

The  exhibit  from   the   public   schools  of  Washington,  D.  C, 
represented  form  study  as  developed  through  clay  moulding  and 


*  From    "A  Conference  on   Manual   Training,"    printed   by  Geo.   H.   Ellis, 
Boston,  1891. 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  235 

carving,  stick  laying,  paper  folding  and  cutting,  construction  of 
models  in  card-board,  and  examples  of  design  applied  to  needle- 
work, drawing  and  tool  laboratory  work  in  shops.  The  con- 
structed forms  and  drawings  were  arranged  in  the  order  of  their 
development  through  the  twelve  years  of  the  school  course,  in- 
cludin.o-  high  school  and  the  normal  training  school.  Both  the 
constructions  and  the  drawings  were  selected  from  the  regular 
school  work  of  the  pupils,  which  represented  the  courses  of  work 
actually  in  operation  as  far  as  they  could  be  represented  by  an 
exhibit. 

First  Year.  —  Geometric  solids,  together  with  a  variety  of  ob- 
jects suggested  by  these  forms,  were  shown  in  clay.  No  drawing 
was  shown  in  this  connection.  (Tlie  use  of  the  pencil  at  the 
beginning  of  the  first  year  is  confined  to  drills  for  securing  correct 
position  and  correct  movements  for  drawing  straight  and  curved 
lines.)  The  study  of  the  edges  of  the  solids  made  in  the  grade 
was  shown  by  constructions  with  sticks  of  different  lengths,  defin- 
ing both  the  geometric  forms  and  invented  combinations  of  them. 
These  were  represented  by  drawings.  The  planes,  squares,  oblong 
rectangles,  triangles,  witli  invented  combinations  of  the  same  made 
in  folded  colored  paper,  were  shown,  drawings  of  the  same  being 
given . 

Second  Year.  —  Forms  were  shown  in  the  same  materials  as 
those  of  the  first  grade  and  in  the  same  order,  those  in  clay  being 
of  increased  size  and  of  greater  variety.  In  stick  laying  the 
rhomb  was  contrasted  with  the  square,  and  the  rhomboid  with  the 
oblong  rectangle,  etc.  The  sticks  were  used  also  to  develop  ideas 
of  length  and  of  the  division  of  lines.  This  work  was  represented 
by  drawings.  The  paper  folding  of  this  year  involved  all  the 
geometric  forms  having  right  lines,  including  original  combina- 
tions, primary  colors  and  their  tints  being  used.  Drawings  of 
these  forms  were  given. 

Third  Year.  —  The  forms  in  clay  were  larger  than  those  of  the 
first  and  second  grades.  The  paper  work  was  shown  in  cutting, 
consisting  of  units  of  design  and  their  arrangement  in  squares, 
oblong  rhombs,  triangles  and  borders.  This  year  was  represented 
in  drawing  by  drill  exercises  in  straight  lines  and  circles,  top  and 
front  view  of  solids,  representations  of  envelopes,  fans,  bottles, 
representations  of  the  designs  in  colored  papers. 

Fourth  Year.  —  The  sphere,  the  ellipsoid  and  the  ovoid  were 
the  geometric  forms  represented  in  clay.  Based  upon  these  forms 
were  many  fruit  forms  and  forms  of  potter}^  of  specified  lieight, 
showing  increased  power  in  the  use  of  clay.  Paper  cutting  was 
shown,  consisting  of  units  of  design  and  their  arrangement  in  the 


236  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

pentagon,  the  hexagon,  the  octagon  and  in  borders.  The  pencil 
drill  of  this  year  was  shown  in  the  circle,  the  ellipse  and  the  oval. 
The  drawings  were  of  forms* above  named,  as  well  as  of  fruits  and 
vegetables  drawn  from  nature. 

Fifth  Year.  —  Working  drawings  and  developments  for  geo- 
metric forms  with  the  forms  in  card-board  made  from  the  work- 
ing drawings  were  shown.  Drawings  of  objects,  the  cylinder  and 
the  cone,  and  mugs,  tumblers  and  other  objects  based  on  those 
geometric  forms,  were  exhibited,  giving  their  appearance  as  seen 
below  the  level  of  the  eye.  Leaf  drawing  from  nature  was  an 
important  feature  of  the  work  of  this  year,  a  great  variety  of 
leaves  being  shown.  In  decorative  work  these  leaves  were  con- 
ventionalized and  arranged  in  rosettes  and  borders.  These  were 
applied  to  outline  embroidery.  A  few  were  cut  in  paper.  In 
clay,  ivy  and  other  leaves  were  shown.  Conventional  arrange- 
ments of  leaves  and  some  historic  forms,  principally  the  lotus, 
carved  in  clay,  were  also  shown. 

Sixth  Yea7\  —  Advanced  working  drawings,  and  their  develop- 
ments with  models  made  from  them  in  card-board,  were  shown. 
The  di'awings  represented  rectangular  solids,  in  addition  to  draw- 
ings similar  to  those  of  the  fifth  grade.  These  were  drawn  from  the 
constructed  forms,  single  and  in  groups.  Drawings  from  nature 
of  leaves  and  branches,  and  decorative  arrangements  designed 
from  these,  were  shown.  Mouldings  in  clay  of  leaves  and 
branches  were  shown,  with  some  examples  of  historic  ornament, 
nioulded  and  carved. 

Seventh  Year.  —  Working  drawings  of  this  year  made  by  use  of 
instruments  involving  geometric  problems  were  shown.  Object 
drawings  were  of  groups  of  geometric  solids  and  various  other 
objects  based  on  them.  The  drawings  from  nature  were  leaves, 
branches  and  flowers.  Decorative  work  consisted  of  bilateral 
arrangements  of  the  foregoing.  Applications  of  color  to  articles 
of  use  were  shown  in  this  year's  exhibit. 

Eighth  Year.  —  Additional  geometric  problems  and  their  appli- 
cations to  construction  were  shown,  also  drawings  of  objects  in 
the  school-room  to  scale,  and  complete  working  drawings  of  many 
small  objects.  Pocket-books  made  of  leather,  and  numerous  other 
useful  articles,  were  exhibited.  The  object  drawing  consisted  of 
groups  of  books,  vases  and  other  forms.  Drawings  from  nature 
were  flowers,  from  which  the  decorative  arrangements  were  made. 
JMany  of  these  were  applied  to  the  embroidery  of  various  articles. 
Mouldings  in  clay  were  groups  of  fruit,  nuts,  flowers  and  of  his- 
toric ornament.  Mouldings  of  some  of  the  bones  used  in  the 
study  of  physiology  were  shown. 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION.  237 


SOMERVILLE    CoURSE. 

Kindergarten.  —  Folding,  sewing,  weaving. 

First  Grade.  —  Sewing  and  clay  modelling,  illustrating  lessons 
in  natural  science.  Cutting,  folding  and  free  drawing,  based 
upon  the  study  of  the  sphere  and  cube. 

Second  Grade.  —  Cutting  from  free  drawing,  and  drawings  based 
upon  the  cylinder,  square  prism,  hemisphere  and  triangular  prism. 

Third  Grade.  —  Cutting  and  drawing  based  upon  ellipsoid,  ovoid, 
equilateral  triangular  prism,  cone  and  square  pyramid. 

Fourth  and  subsequent  grades  indicate  more  definitely  the  three 
leading  lines  of  drawing  :  namely,  first,  constructive  ;  second,  pic- 
torial ;  and  third,  decorative,  as  follows :  drawing  of  facts  of 
type  forms  already  studied ;  drawing  of  natural  objects  based 
upon  sphere  and  ellipsoid  ;  arrangements  of  type  forms  in  paper  ; 
borders  and  surface  covering. 

Fifth  Grade.  —  Drawings  of  facts  of  type  forms  and  objects 
based  on  type  forms.  Pictorial  drawings  of  natural  forms  and 
simple  familiar  objects.  Arrangement  in  paper  of  units  around  a 
centi'e  and  borders. 

Sixth  Grade.  —  Drawings  of  facts  of  simple  objects  and  patterns. 
Perspective  of  the  cj^linder  and  objects  based  upon  the  cylinder. 
In  paper,  arrangements  of  units  to  show  by  bilateral  symmetry  sur- 
face covering  and  drawing  of  simple  forms  of  historic  ornament. 

Seventh  Grade. — Top,  front  and  end  views  of  solids.  Simple 
groups  of  objects,  involving  free-hand  parallel  perspective.  In 
paper  work,  borders  and  all-over  patterns,  and  simple  forms  of 
historic  ornament. 

Eighth  Grade. — Drawings  to  show  construction  of  more  diffi- 
cult objects.  Groups  of  objects  showing  parallel  perspective.  In 
paper  work,  repetition  of  units  to  cover  a  vertical  surface. 

Ninth  Grade. — Work  in  constructive  drawing.  Objects  in 
angular  perspective  drawn.  In  paper  work,  simple  designs  from 
conventionalized  plant  forms. 


Springfield  Course. 
Drawing  was  first  introduced  into  the  grammar  grades  of  the 
schools  in  1870,  but  was  taught  by  the  regular  teachers.  A  spe- 
cial teacher  in  drawing  was  appointed  in  1874.  The  Prang  books 
were  used  in  all  grades  for  several  years.  In  1890  grades  six, 
seven,  eight  and  nine  began  working  upon  drawing  pads,  the  work 
being  prepared  by  the  supervisor  of  drawing.  The  work  in  all 
grades  at  present  is  as  follows  :  — 


238  MAI^UAL    TRAINING   AND 

First  Year.  —  Solids :  sphere,  cylinder,  cube,  hemisphere. 
Prisms :  square,  right-angled.  Expression  by  moulding  clay, 
cutting,  drawing  at  board  and  on  paper,  pasting  and  sewing. 

Second  Year. — Review  first-year  solids,  and  study  equilateral 
triangular  prism,  ellipsoid,  ovoid,  cone  and  square  pyramid. 
Leaves.     Expression  as  in  first  year. 

Third  Year. — Review  from  study.  Prang's  Shorter  Course, 
Book  1,  twice.  Additional  work  on  paper.  Making  in  card- 
board. 

Fourth  Year.  — Prang's  Shorter  Course,  Book  2,  twice.  Addi- 
tional work  on  paper,  and  making  in  card-board. 

Fifth  Year. — Prang's  Shorter  Course,  Book  3,  twice,  or  Books 
3  and  4.     Making  in  card- board. 

Sixth  Year. — Making  in  card-board.  Paper.  Natural  leaves. 
Spirals,  and  curves  upon  which  designs  can  be  constructed.  His- 
toric ornament  from  copy.  Designs,  using  leaves  or  ornament  as 
motives.  Appearance  of  cylinder,  cone,  cube,  square  prism,  and 
common  objects  based  on  these  solids,  two  faces  showing.  Fruit 
and  vegetables.  Working  drawings,  teaching  use  of  three  views. 
These  views  show  foreshortened  faces,  invisible  edges,  sections, 
expression  of  dimensions. 

Seventh  Year. — Work  done  on  blank  paper.  Study  of  natural 
leaves.  Skeleton  curves  for  designs..  Designs  using  convention- 
alized leaves  as  motives.  Historic  ornament  from  copy.  Appear- 
ance. Review  work  of  sixth  year,  and  teach  cubes,  prisms  and 
plinths  at  45°.  Group  solids ;  vegetables.  Use  of  compasses. 
Essential  geometric  problems.  Application  of  compass  work  to 
designing,  working  drawings  and  making  in  card-board. 

Eighth  and  Ninth  Years.  —  Work  done  on  blank  paper.  Study 
leaves  and  flowers.  Plant  analysis  in  connection  with  designs. 
Drawing  natural  objects  preparatory  to  science  work  in  high 
school.  Historic  ornament.  Mechanical  drawing.  Use  of  T 
square,  triangles  and  drawing  board.  Making  in  card-board. 
Review  working  drawings.  Teach  use  of  scale.  Working  draw- 
ings of  common  objects,  pupils  taking  their  own  "measurements. 


Motive  of  the  Prang  Manual  Training  Course  * 

The  primary  school  work  of  the  Prang  course  leads  the  little 

child  (in  most  cities  and  towns,  under  present  conditions,  he  is 

fresh  from  home  and  street,  with  no  previous  helps  in  mastering 

himself  and  the  world)    through   the  study  of   type  forms  into 

*  Paper  by  Mrs.  Mary  D.  Hicks. 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION".  239 

direct  and  happy  familiarity  with  things  having  form,  and  so  into 
the  possession  of  clear  and  coi-rect  concepts  of  form.  This  study 
of  type  forms  is  carried  on  in  close  connection  with  the  study  of 
kindred  forms  in  nature  and  in  art ;  and,  developed  progressively 
in  accordance  with  the  well-known  law  of  opposites  and  their 
mediation,  which  is  the  law  of  harmony  in  art  as  well  as  in  the 
kindergarten,  gives  the  child,  during  his  first  two  or  three  years  of 
school  life,  such  mental  grasp  of  his  environment  as  serves  him 
well  in  all  later  work.  Here,  too,  in  the  earliest  primary  grades, 
is  begun  that  free  expression  of  individual  thought  and  feeling 
which  characterizes  the  educational  use  of  art  processes,  —  lan- 
guage, building,  clay  modelling,  tablet  and  stick  laying,  paper 
folding  and  cutting,  free  drawing,  the  use  of  color  materials,  — 
all  these  are  utilized  as  simple  and  practicable  means  for  the  out- 
ward expression  of  inward  activity.  And  it  is  not  found  difficult, 
in  this  most  elementary  work,  to  awaken  in  the  children  the  be- 
ginning of  a  true  art  feeling,  and  to  lead  them  to  put  such  feeling, 
crudely  but  truly,  into  their  own  modelling,  drawing  and  making. 

It  is  easy  to  see  how  this  department  of  primary  school  work 
touches  every  other  department  with  its  wholesome  and  happy 
spirit.  Language,  number,  elementary  science,  nature  study, 
simple  calisthenics  and  motion  songs,  all  find  themselves  related 
to  this  primary  work  in  form  drawing  and  color,  and  helped  by  it 
to  an  extent  which  only  the  wise  kindergartner  could  have  fully 
predicted. 

The  work  of  the  Prang  course,  in  grades  above  the  primary 
schools,  is  logically  based  on  that  of  the  earlier  years.  Dividing 
naturally  into  the  three  inter-related  subjects  of  constructive  draw- 
ing (drawing  as  related  to  construction  and  the  industrial  arts), 
representative  drawing  (drawing  as  related  to  pictorial  art)  and 
decorative  drawing  (drawing  as  related  to  ornament),  it  develops 
consistently  and  naturally  along  these  three  parallel  lines,  being 
closely  related,  all  the  way  through  the  grammar  school,  to  the 
contemporary  work  in  arithmetic,  geography,  natural  science,  his- 
tory and  literature.  Children  are  led,  as  early  as  may  be,  to  con- 
firm their  previously  gained  concepts  of  form  by  working,  in  cer- 
tain exercises,  from  these  mental  concepts  alone,  rather  than  from 
tangible,  material  things ;  letting  the  imagination  recreate  the 
thing,  and  express  its  own  creation  by  modelling,  making  or  draw- 
ing. And  again,  as  the  course  of  study  develops,  more  attention 
has  necessarily  to  be  given  to  technique.  Ideas  of  beauty  should 
have  beautiful  expression,  and  the  ability  to  express  beautifully 
must  be  acquired  through  patient  practice  under  wise  direction. 
From  the  fourth  and  fifth  grade  upward,  provision  has  therefore 


240  MANUAL    TRAININa   AND 

to  be  made  for  excellence  of  rendering  as  well  as  freedom  of  ex- 
pression, much  free  drawing  being  naturally  and  helpfully  done  in 
connection  with  other  school  studies.  The  aim  throughout  the 
course  is  the  cultivation  of  the  power  to  think  form  clearly  and 
correctly,  either  with  or  without  the  sight  of  objects  possessing 
form,  and  to  express,  with  truth,  simplicity  and  beauty,  both  those 
ideas  of  form  which  are  directly  gained  from  the  observation  of 
nature  and  art,  and  those  which  ai'e  the  flower  of  the  creative 
imagination.  Abundant  evidence  already  shows  that  this  founda- 
tion of  form  study,  this  systematic  primary-school  practice  in  the 
elements  of  hand  training,  followed  up  as  it  is  in  the  higher 
grades  by  exercises  in  reading  and  making  working  drawings  and 
the  actual  construction  of  objects  with  constant  regard  to  the  art 
principles  involved,  gives  school  children  sound  and  satisfactory 
preparation  for  the  special  instruction  of  the  best  manual  training 
schools,  or  for  intelligent  entrance  on  industrial  pursuits. 

The  training  afforded  by  the  Prang  course  along  the  lines  of 
decorative  art  leads  immediately  and  helpfully  up  to  both  spiritual 
and  so-called  "practical"  service  in  daily  life.  Intimately  con- 
nected as  it  is  with  all  the  industrial  arts,  its  utilitarian  value 
hardly  needs  exposition.  It  is  only  when  one  considers  the  sig- 
nificance of  a  crude  or  a  cultivated  taste  in  the  choice  of  things  of 
daily  use  that  one  begins  to  realize  the  import  of  educating  the 
taste  of  a  whole  generation  of  children. 


Course  of  Instruction  in  Sewing  laid  down  by  New  England 
Superintendents'  Association. 

First  Year.  —  Folding  ;  basting  ;  back-stitching  ;  overcasting  ; 
hemming  ;  proper  wearing  and  use  of  thimble  in  connection  with 
needle ;  right  length  of  thread,  threading  needle  and  making 
knots  ;  holding  of  work  by  left  hand  ;  position  of  work  and  needle 
taught  in  connection  with  stitch  given,  also  beginning,  joining  and 
fastening  of  thread.  Stitches  should  first  be  drawn  upon  paper, 
using  the  ruler  to  insure  accuracy  of  stitch.  Hems,  wide  and  nar- 
row, may  first  be  turned  upon  paper,  using  the  ruler  for  a  measure. 
Each  new  stitch  should  be  preceded  by  a  drill  in  the  proper  posi- 
tion of  the  hands  and  fingers  while  making  the  stitch ;  also  a  drill 
for  the  arms  in  the  motion  of  drawing  the  needle  and  thread 
through  the  cloth.  Models  :  articles  brought  from  home  may  be 
towels,  napkins  and  handkerchiefs  to  hem. 

Second  Year.  —  Review  previous  year's  work  ;  overhauding  on 
folded  edges  ;  overhanding  on  selvages  ;  wide  hems  ;  plain  fell ; 
darning  tear  ;  running,  especial  drill  given  in  the  position  of  the 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  241 

fingers  in  making  this  stitch,  also  teaching  the  pupils  to  use  the 
side  of  the  thimble.  Models  :  a  pillow  slip,  plain  apron  without 
gathers,  or  small  sheet. 

Third  Year.  —  Review  previous  year's  work  ;  gathering,  laying 
or  stroking  gathers,  putting  gathers  into  band  by  back  stitching 
and  hemming  ;  French  fell,  straight  fell,  reversible  seam  ;  darning 
tear  with  silk  ;  patching  on  cotton  cloth  ;  button-holes  commenced, 
four-holed  buttons  sewed  on  ;  feather  and  herring-bone  stitches  ; 
the  proper  way  of  tearing  or  cutting  cloth  for  bands  or  ruffling, 
viz,  straight  or  across  the  grain.  Models:  apron  with  band, 
plain  white  cotton  or  flannel  skirt  with  band,  button- hole,  and 
button  sewed  on. 

Fourth  Year.  —  Review  button-holes  and  sewing  on  buttons  ; 
putting  in  gussets  ;  dax'ning  tear  with  ravellings  ;  patching  on 
calico  and  woollen  goods  ;  stocking  darning  ;  cutting  bias  bands 
and  joining  same  ;  tucking  and  ruffling.  Models  :  some  garments 
to  be  made,  combining  the  stitches  learned  and  teaching  the  cutting 
and  putting  together. 

Suggestions  :  in  all  grades  particular  attention  should  be  given 
to  the  position  of  pupils  while  sewing.  Accuracy  of  rule  and 
measure  is  to  be  insisted  upon.  Soft,  half-bleached  cotton  cloth 
and  colored  thread  may  be  used  for  practice  work,  the  colored 
thread  showing  the  shape  and  size  of  the  stitches  better  than  white. 

Materials  for  practice  work  for  one  pupil  for  the  first  year  are  as 
follows  :  one-half  yard  of  half-bleached  cotton  cloth ;  one  spool 
red  cotton.  No.  50  ;  one  spool  blue  cotton.  No.  50  ;  one  spool  yel- 
low cotton,  No.  40  ;  thimble,  pinball  and  sewing  bag  made  from 
one-half  yard  of  calico,  with  owner's  name  sewed  upon  it. 


Philadelphia  Setting  Coukse. 
Fifch  Grade.  — Position  of  the  pupils  while  engaged  in  sewing  ; 
the  proper  use  of  the  thimble  finger,  first  finger  and  thumb  of  the 
right  hand ;  position  of  the  left  hand  for  holding  the  work  ;  drill 
in  the  same  ;  exercises  in  the  action  of  taking  a  stitch  and  drawing 
the  thread  through  the  material ;  drill  in  the  threading  of  the 
needle  (needle  and  thread  may  be  given  out  at  the  beginning  of 
the  lesson)  ;  turning,  basting  and  sewing  plain  hems  (attention  to 
be  given  to  accuracy  in  widtli  of  hems  and  size  of  stitches  used  in 
basting  and  hemming)  ;  correct  use  of  scissors  (paper  may  be 
supplied  for  this  purpose)  ;  overseaming  on  turned  edges  (the  raw 
edges  maybe  turned  in  and  hemmed  down).  If  more  material 
is  needed  than  that  furnished  by  the  Board  of  Education,  towels, 
wash-rags  and  similar  articles  may  be  hemmed. 


242  MANUAL   TEAININGT  AND 

Sixth  Grade.  —  Questions  and  exercises  in  the  use  of  thimbles, 
scissors,  threading  the  needle  ;  the  direction  of  the  needle,  as 
used  in  basting  and  sewing  a  hem  (time  for  these  exercises,  Jive 
minutes)  ;  overseaming  with  explanations  and  exercises  in  joining 
a  new  or  broken  thread  ;  running  seam,  composed  of  one  running 
and  one  back  stitch,  the  raw  edges  to  be  overcast ;  cutting  out  and 
making  simple  articles,  e.  g.^  children's  bibs,  plain  over-sleeves. 
Work  brought  from  home  may  be  table  napkins,  towels,  bags,  desk 
covers  and  pillow  slips. 

Seventh  Grade.  —  Questions  on  position,  the  proper  use  of  the 
thimble  and  scissors  ;  exercises  in  threading  the  needle  ;  questions 
on  the  direction  of  the  needle  when  used  in  basting,  hemming  and 
overseaming  (time  for  this  exercise,  five  minutes)  ;  reversible 
seam  ;  plain  fell,  sewed  with  running  stitches,  strengthened  by  an 
occasional  back  stitch  and  finished  by  hemming ;  back-stitched 
seam  overcast  on  the  raw  edges  ;  patching  commenced  ;  cutting 
out  of  plain  under  waists  without  seam  under  the  arm.  Work 
brought  from  home  may  be  towels,  table  napkins,  pillow  slips, 
ruffles  to  hem,  bags  and  worn  articles  that  may  need  patching. 

Eight  Grade.  — ■  Questions  on  the  work  of  lower  grades  (time  for 
this  exercise,  five  minutes)  ;  plain  fell  repeated  ;  gathering,  plac- 
ing or  stroking  the  same  ;  sewing  the  gathers  into  a  band,  using 
half  back  stitching,  the  band  finished  with  hemming ;  darning 
commenced  ;  work  to  consist  of  stocking  and  dress  darning ;  cut- 
ting out  patterns  of  under  waists  and  aprons  of  all  kinds.  Work 
brought  from  home  may  be  aprons,  under  waists,  combing  towels, 
shoe  bags,  ruffles  to  hem  and  gather,  darning  and  mending. 

Ninth  Grade.  —  Narrow  hems,  hems  of  medium  and  broad 
widths  ;  tucks  (threads  should  not  be  drawn  from  the  material 
to  secure  straight  tucking)  ;  narrow,  plain  fells  ;  French  fells  ; 
fine  gathering,  hemmed  to  a  band  ;  button-holes  ;  gussets  ;  shirt 
or  other  four-holed  buttons  sewed  on ;  stocking  mending  and 
patching  ;  cutting  out  and  making  drawers  from  actual  measure- 
ments. Shoe  bags,  sleeves,  aprons,  muslin  skirts  and  plain  under- 
garments may  be  brought  from  home  to  be  made,  and  kept  in 
school  until  finished. 

Tenth  Grade. — Bias  seams  of  all  kinds  ;  gathering,  as  done  on 
dress  skirts,  to  be  overseamed  to  a  band ;  the  two  stitches  used 
on  flannel  undergarments,  viz.,  herring-bone  stitch  and  feather 
stitch  ;  button-hole  ;  cutting  out  and  making  gored  skirts.  Chil- 
dren's plain  underwear,  boys'  shirt  waists,  collars  and  cuffs,  dust- 
ing caps  and  plain  flannel  skirts  may  be  supplied  from  home. 

Eleventh  Grade.  —  Questions  and  review  of  all  work  done  in 
previous  grades  ;  paper  patterns  drawn  and  cut  for  undergarments 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION.  243 

from  actual  measurements  ;  material  for  such  garments  brought 
from  home  and  cut  out  in  school ;  pupils  taught  to  place  the  pat- 
terns properly  and  economically  on  the  muslin  ;  work  basted  and 
fitted  on  the  pupils. 

Tioelfrh  Grade.  — Review  of  all  work  done  in  previous  grades; 
pupils  should  be  required  to  decide  which  seams  should  be  used 
for  the  several  parts  of  the  garments  cut  and  made  in  this  grade  ; 
first  steps  in  dressmaking  ;  method  of  basting  lining  and  material 
together  for  dress  waists  and  sleeves  ;  trying  on  and  fitting  the 
same ;  adjusting  facings  to  lined  gored  skirts  ;  sewing  on  braid, 
etc.     Mending  of  all  kinds  must  be  encouraged  by  the  teacher. 


Brookline  Sewing  Course. 

Fotirth  Year.  —  Threading  needle  ;  use  of  thimble  ;  exercise  of 
thimble  finger  ;  position  of  needle  against  thimble,  and  pushing 
through  cloth  without  thread  ;  use  of  scissors  ;  first  stitches  learned 
on  canvais  with  worsted  ;  basting  ;  stitching  ;  back  stitching,  turn- 
ing, basting  and  sewing  hems  ;  oversewing  turned  edges  ;  begin- 
ning and  joining  of  thread  for  these  different  kinds  of  work ; 
questions  on  year's  work. 

Fifth  Year. — Position  while  sewing;  review  of  last  year's 
work  ;  work  done  on  pieces  of  unbleached  cloth,  nine  inches  by 
three  inches,  and  all  seams  sewed  with  three  colors  of  cotton,  to 
show  joinings ;  two  pieces  of  cloth  basted  together ;  stitching 
below  basting  ;  hemmed  fell,  turned  with  needle  ;  running  stitches, 
needle  remaining  in  cloth  throughout  entire  length  ;  one-inch  hem 
turned,  basted  and  sewed  ;  button-hole  practice  commenced  ;  edge 
of  cloth  turned  straight  and  oversewed  to  hem  ;  running  and 
back-stitched  seam  cut  evenly  and  overcast ;  French  seam  ;  fell, 
the  hem  being  turned  with  the  needle  ;  patch  prepared,  basted  and 
hemmed  on  ;  patch  prepared,  basted,  stitched  in  and  overcast ; 
oversewing  selvage  edges  ;  gusset  set  into  selvage  seam  ;  tucks 
measured,  basted  and  run;  stroking;  sewing  into  binding;  ques- 
tions on  year's  work. 

Sixth  Year.  —  Exercise  of  scissors  on  striped  and  checked  cloth 
(stripes  train  the  eye  for  cutting  by  a  thread  in  fine  cloth)  ;  exer- 
cise of  thimble  finger ;  button-hole  practice  (cross  bar  on  outer 
edge  in  overcasting  and  straight  bar  on  inner  edge  in  finishing, — 
every  part  of  button-hole  work  represented  on  black-board)  ; 
darning  of  all  kinds, — in  stocking  goods  (hole  darned  on  wrong 
side,  small  loops  left  to  allow  for  shrinkage),  in  fine  cloth,  in 
worsted  fabric  with  ravellings,  in  silk  and  satin  with  ravellings  of 
same,  in  table  linen  with  fine  linen  floss  ;    learning  number  of 


244  MANUAL    TRAININa   AND 

needle  and  number  of  cotton  used  for  different  kinds  of  work ; 
sampler  commenced  (the  sampler  is  made  of  fine  white  cloth, 
carrying  out  in  cotton  the  instructions  given  in  lower  grades  on 
coarse  cloth  with  colored  cottons)  ;  cross-stitch  made  on  canvas 
with  worsted  ;  questions  on  the  year's  work. 

Seventh  Tear.  —  Sampler  continued  ;  single  and  double  feather- 
stitch on  canvas  with  worsted  ;  herring-bone  stitch  on  canvas  with 
worsted  (both  represented  on  black-board)  ;  herring-bone  stitch 
with  silk  on  flannel ;  feather-stitching  with  silk  on  flannel ;  button- 
holes, different  sizes,  on  sampler  ;  button-hole  with  twist  on  flannel 
(button-holes  cannot  be  practised  too  much)  ;  gathering,  strok- 
ing, sewing  on  band ;  sewing  on  buttons  ;  gusset  made  ;  sampler 
finished  ;  hemstitching  ;  Mexican  work  on  linen  ;  alphabet  in  cross- 
stitch,  on  scrim,  with  silk  ;  length,  width  and  bias  of  cloth  taught 
in  tnis  grade  ;  questions  on  year's  work. 

Eighth  Year.  —  Embroidery  darning  ;  embroidery  button-hole 
stitching,  couching,  French  knot ;  outline  stitch  ;  outline  upon  origi- 
nal designs  ;  advanced  drawn  work  ;  harmony  of  color ;  primary 
cutting  (drawers)  by  measurement  from  black-board  ;  intermediate 
cutting  (skirt  and  sleeve)  by  measurement  from  black-board ; 
finish  piece  of  work  from  this  instruction  for  exhibit ;  questions 
and  review  of  work  done  in  lower  grades  ;  questions  on  year's  work. 

Ninth  Year.  —  Study  of  proportion  of  human  form  for  cutting 
and  fitting  dresses ;  talks  on  dress  materials ;  calculation  for 
amount  of  material,  of  different  width  goods,  needed  for  waist, 
skirt,  sleeves,  etc.,  proper  kind  of  lining  for  different  dress 
materials  ;  matching  of  plaids  and  stripes  ;  first  steps  in  dress 
cutting  ;  pin  paper  to  model  of  girl's  form,  and  cut  out  pattern  ; 
pin  on  sarcenet,  or  thin  cambric,  and  cut  out  pattern  ;  pupils 
taught  to  fit  dress  lining  to  each  other ;  pupil  taught  to  represent 
in  colored  paper  (from  book  of  models)  a  perfect  pattern  of  dress 
she  wishes  to  make  (this  instruction  leads  to  knowledge  of  design- 
ing) ;  dress  cut  and  made  (much  of  this  work  can  be  taught  from 
black-board  ;  make  it  class-work  as  much  as  possible)  ;  gored  skirt 
drawn  and  cut  by  measurement ;  questions  on  year's  work  ;  review 
of  instruction  given  in  lower  grades. 


Cookery   Lessons.* 
Lesson  on  the  Fire. 
Before  we  cook  anything  we  should  learn  how  to  make   and 
attend  to  a  fire,  as,  no  matter  how  well  the  materials  are  pre- 


*  Bv  Miss  Duff. 


ESTDUSTRIAL    EDUCATIOlSr.  245 

pared  and  put  together,  unless  the  heat  for  cooking  is  what  it 
should  be  the  results  will  not  be  successful. 

To  make  a  fire  we  must  have  something  to  burn,  —  paper,  wood, 
coal,  oil,  gas,  candle,  etc.,  —  in  short,  we  must  have  fuel,  which 
means  anything  that  is  used  for  burning  or  for  making  a  fire. 

Pupils  are  shown  a  piece  of  wood,  a  candle,  etc.  Here  is  plenty 
of  fuel,  and  yet  there  is  no  fire,  so  something  besides  fuel  must  be 
necessary.  A  pupil  suggests  lighting  a  match,  and  a  little  ques- 
tioning brings  out  the  fact  that  from  the  match  heat  may  be  ob- 
tained,—  the  second  thing  necessary  for  our  fire,  —  to  make  the 
fuel  hot  enough  to  burn. 

How  shall  we  light  the  match  ?  It  is  suggested  that  it  be  rubbed 
against  something.  At  one  end  of  the  common  match  is  a  red 
substance,  a  preparation  of  phosphorus,  and  beyond  this  extends 
for  a  short  distance  a  thin  coating  of  sulphur,  which  is  the  name 
of  the  yellow  substance,  and  the  rest  of  the  match  is  of  soft  wood. 
Which  end  shall  we  rub?  We  are  told  to  rub  the  red  end,  which 
is  rubbed  against  a  piece  of  glass.  It  does  not  light;  it  must  be 
rubbed  against  something  rough  ;  so  a  piece  of  sand-paper  is  tried, 
and  it  lights  at  once. 

The  rubbing  of  two  substances  together  is  called  "  friction,"  a 
Avord  which  means  "  to  rub."  Friction  or  rubbing  always  pro- 
duces heat,  and  the  rougher  the  surface  the  more  friction,  and  the 
more  friction  the  more  heat.  (Pupils  rub  hands  together,  and  find 
that  heat  is  produced.) 

Had  we  rubbed  the  other  end  of  the  match  against  the  sand- 
paper as  much  heat  would  have  been  produced,  but  we  know  from 
experience  that  it  would  not  have  lighted  the  wood,  and  we  know 
also  that  if  the  red  tip  were  broken  off  the  sulphur  would  not  light, 
either.  We  learn  from  this  that  some  substances  require  more  to 
make  them  burn  than  others.  As  the  phosphorus  preparation  on 
the  end  of  the  match  was  rubbed  against  the  sand-paper,  enough 
heat  was  produced  to  light  it,  as  it  burns  easily ;  and,  as  it  burned, 
it  heated  the  sulphur  till  it  was  hot  enough  to  burn,  and  this  in 
turn  heated  the  wood  till  it  also  was  hot  enough,  to  kindle. 

The  degree  of  heat  necessary  to  make  a  substance  burn  or  kindle 
is  called  its  "  burning  point,"  or  kindling  point.  Any  substance 
which  needs  but  little  heat  to  make  it  burn  (or  a  low  degree  of 
heat)  is  said  to  have  a  low  "  burning  point,"  that  is,  it  lights 
easily.  AVe  know  that  phosphorus  must  have  a  low  burning  point, 
and  that  sulphur  has  a  higher  burning  point,  and  that  wood  has 
a  higher  still,  because  more  heat  is  rcciuired  to  make  them  burn. 

Ancient  methods  of  obtaining  heat  are  mentioned, — flint  and 
steel,  etc.    A  burning  match  is  laid  across  a  small  box  which  rests 


246  MAI^^UAL    TEAINESTG   AND 

on  the  table,  and  while  it  burns  freely  a  tumbler  is  put  over  it, 
close  to  the  table.  The  match  soon  goes  out.  Another  is  lighted 
and  placed  in  the  same  position,  and  the  tumbler  again  placed  over 
it  and  allowed  to  remain  until  the  flame  is  almost  extinguished. 
The  tumbler  is  then  raised,  and  the  flame  bui^ns  freely.  This  is 
repeated,  and  each  time  the  tumbler  is  raised  the  flame  starts  up, 
and  goes  down  when  the  tumbler  is  lowered.  It  is  plain  from  this 
experiment  that  the  tumbler  shuts  out  something  that  is  quite  as 
necessary  to  our  little  fire  as  fuel  or  heat,  and  that  is  air.  The  air 
that  is  all  about  us  is  a  mixture  of  two  gases,  four  parts  nitrogen 
and  one  part  oxygen,  which  is  the  life-giving  part  of  the  air,  — 
the  part  that  is  needed  to  keep  our  fire  burning,  and  the  part  that 
animals  breathe  to  keep  them  alive. 

We  have  learned,  then,  that  three  things  are  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  make  our  ordinary  fires  burn  :  — 

First. — Fuel,  or  something  to  burn. 

Second.  —  Heat,  to  make  fuel  hot  enough  to  burn. 

Third.  — Air,  to  keep  fire  burning,  or  to  "  support  combustion." 

"We  could  make  a  fire  out  of  doors,  aud  use  various  means  to 
hang  kettles,  etc.,  over  it,  but  it  would  be  neither  convenient  nor 
safe  to  do  so  in  the  house,  without  some  method  of  enclosing  it, 
and  it  is  also  necessary  to  regulate  the  supply  of  air,  as  more  or 
less  heat  is  desired.  Our  fires  are  usually  enclosed  in  iron  boxes, 
which  we  call  stoves  ;  and,  as  the  conditions  for  making  a  fire  in 
all  enclosed  spaces  are  the  same,  we  will  for  convenience  light  a 
candle  for  our  fire,  and  use  a  lamp-chimney  to  enclose  it. 

The  candle  is  lighted  and  the  chimney  held  over  it  a  few  inches 
from  the  table.  It  burns  freely,  so  we  know  that  there  must  be 
present  the  three  things  needed,  fuel,  heat  and  air.  As  there  is  an 
opening  at  the  top  of  the  chimney  as  well  as  one  below,  the  ques- 
tion arises.  Through  which  one  does  the  air  go  in  to  keep  the  fire 
burning?  Holding  the  hand  above  the  chimney,  we  feel  the  hot 
air  coming  up  against  it,  and  when  a  feather  is  held  over  it  it  is 
blown  upward,  showing  that  the  air  which  comes  out  at  the  top  of 
the  chimney  is  hot,  and  also  that  it  rises,  for  even  when  the  hand 
is  held  some  distance  above,  the  hot  air  may  still  be  felt.  Placing 
the  hand  at  the  opening  below  the  chimney,  we  find  that  the  air  is 
no  warmer  there  than  in  other  parts  of  the  room ;  aud,  as  there  are 
but  two  openings,  one  above  and  one  below,  and  we  know  that  hot 
air  comes  out  at  the  top  opening,  we  think  the  cold  air  must  go  in 
below. 

The  chimney  is  lowered  till  it  rests  on  the  table,  leaving  no  open- 
ing below.  Tlie  candle  soon  goes  out,  though  there  is  an  opening 
at  the  top.     We  are  sure  now  that  the  air  which  keeps  the  fire 


IN'DUSTIIIAL    EDUCATION.  247 

buruing  is  supplied  from  below.  We  have  thus  learned  two 
things :  first,  that  in  our  enclosed  space  the  air  to  keep  the  fire 
burning  goes  in  at  the  lower  opening  ;  and  second,  that  heated  air 
rises  ;  and  we  understand  why  furnaces  are  placed  in  the  cellar, 
and  not  in  the  attic. 

Knowing  that  our  stove  must  have  one  opening  to  let  the  air  in, 
we  will  see  whether  any  other  one  is  necessary.  The  candle  is 
once  more  lighted,  the  chimney  being  held  a  few  inches  above  the 
table  as  before,  and  while  our  little  fire  is  burning  freely  a  piece  of 
glass  is  laid  over  the  top  of  the  chimney,  and  in  a  very  short  time 
the  fire  goes  out.  There  was  plenty  of  space  for  air  to  get  in,  so, 
as  the  candle  did  not  burn,  we  know  that  something  more  is  needed, 
and  we  remember  that  when  we  held  the  hand  over  the  chimney  we 
felt  hot  air  coming  out,  so  the  glass  evidently  kept  in  something 
that  ought  to  get  out.  We  have  learned  that  it  is  the  oxygen  in 
the  air  which  the  fire  needs  to  keep  it  burning,  and  we  remember 
that  when  the  tumbler  was  placed  over  the  burning  match  it  did 
not  go  out  instantly.  The  air  in  the  tumbler  contained  a  certain 
quantity  of  oxygen,  and  the  match  burned  until  this  was  used  up. 
When  the  oxygen  is  burned  out  of  air  what  remains  is  really  no 
longer  air,  but  there  is  formed  watery  vapor,  and  a  gas  which  is 
poisonous  for  animals  to  breathe  and  in  which  no  fire  can  burn.  We 
sljall  learn  more  about  this  later.  (It  is  worth  remembering  that 
where  a  candle  cannot  burn  a  man  cannot  live,  —  a  fact  made  use 
of  in  going  down  into  unused  wells.  This  poisonous  gas  is  heavy, 
and  sometimes  settles  at  the  bottom  of  wells,  vats,  etc.  A  lighted 
candle  is  gently  lowered  into  the  well,  and  if  it  continues  to  burn  a 
man  can  descend  in  safety,  otherwise  he  cannot  until  means  have 
been  used  to  get  the  gas  out,  as,  if  there  is  not  oxygen  enough  to 
keep  the  candle  burning,  there  is  not  enough  for  a  man  to  breathe.) 

The  keeping  in  of  this  poisonous  gas,  then,  is  what  caused  our 
candle  to  go  out ;  and  we  thus  learn  that  in  every  stove  there  must 
be,  besides  a  place  for  fresh  air,  or  air  containing  oxygen,  to  get 
in,  a  place  for  the  gases,  etc.,  formed  by  the  burning  to  escape. 
As  the  heated  air,  and  the  gases  formed  by  the  burning, —  "  par- 
tial products  of  combustion,"  —  rise  and  go  out  at  the  top  of  the 
chimney,  cold  air  is  drawn  in  to  take  their  place,  and  motion  is 
thus  produced,  which  is  called  a  "draft."  When  the  expression 
is  heard,  "  The  stove  doesn't  draw  well,"  or  "  The  chimney  hasn't 
a  good  draft,"  it  is  meant  that  something  prevents  the  air  from 
going  in  freely,  or  that  there  is  some  reason  why  the  gas,  etc., 
cannot  escape  freely.  The  word  "  draft"  means  to  "  draw,"  and 
it  is  used  here  because  when  the  heated  air,  etc.,  rises,  cold  air  is 
really  drawn  in,  sometimes  with  considerable  force,  to  take  its  place. 


248  MAisTUAL    TRAINING  AND 

Examining  our  stove,  we  find  it  to  be  a  large  iron  box,  with  a 
space  at  one  end  lined  at  the  sides  with  fire-clay,  and  the  bottom 
is  formed  of  iron  bars  with  openings  between,  and  we  know  this  is 
the  place  where  the  fresh  air  goes  in,  and  the  same  openings  allow 
the  ashes  to  drop  through.  This  space  is  called  the  "fire  box," 
because  in  it  the  fire  is  built.  Outside  the  fire  box,  on  the  front 
of  the  stove,  is  a  slide  called  the  front  damper,  which  may  be 
opened  or  closed,  as  more  or  less  air  is  needed.  Directly  behind 
and  close  to  the  fire  box  is  another  iron  box,  set  into  the  stove  in 
such  a  way  that  there  is  a  space  between  the  top  of  the  stove  and 
the  top  of  this  second  iron  box,  which  is  really  the  oven  ;  being 
smaller  than  the  stove,  a  space  is  also  left  between  the  end  of  the 
oven  and  the  end  of  the  stove,  as  well  as  under  and  behind  it.  At 
the  back  of  the  stove,  in  the  top,  is  an  opening  controlled  by 
another  slide,  called  the  chimney  damper,  which  controls  the  open- 
ing into  the  pipe  which  connects  the  stove  with  the  outer  air.  This 
chimney  damper  and  the  front  damper  are  the  only  ones  absolutely 
necessary ;  but  we  find  here  still  another  damper,  called  the  oven 
damper,  the  use  of  which  we  will  now  learn.  Lighting  a  piece  of 
paper,  we  notice  that  the  flame  is  drawn  directly  across  the  top  of 
the  oven  to  the  chimney  damper.  We  will  close  the  oven  damper, 
and  we  find  that  the  opening  to  the  chimney  through  the  chimney 
damper  is  closed,  and  the  flame  is  drawn  across  the  top  of  the  ovan, 
down  the  opening  at  the  end,  under  the  oven  and  up  behind  it, 
finally  reaching  the  chimney,  and  we  thus  understand  that  by  the 
closing  of  this  oven  damper  the  heated  air  is  forced  to  go  around 
the  oven  before  reaching  the  chimney,  and  in  this  way  the  oven 
is  heated.  The  arrangement  of  these  dampers  differs  in  different 
cooking  stoves,  but  the  principle  is  the  same  in  all,  —  there  must 
be  a  lower  or  front  damper  to  control  the  supply  of  fresh  air,  and 
there  must  be  a  chimney  damper  to  allow  the  escape  of  smoke, 
gas,  etc.  ;  and  to  heat  the  oven,  the  oven  damper  is  necessary  to 
force  the  heated  air,  etc.,  to  take  a  longer  course  before  reaching 
the  chimney.  When  the  fire  is  built  all  the  dampers  should  be 
opened,  allowing  plenty  of  fresh  air  to  go  in  ;  the  chimney  damper, 
to  allow  smoke,  gas,  etc.,  which  goes  off  more  abundantly  when 
the  fire  is  first  lighted,  to  escape  freely,  and  the  oven  damper,  to 
allow  the  smoke,  etc.,  to  go  off  as  quickly  as  possible.  When  the 
fire  is  burning  freely  the  oven  damper  is  the  first  one  to  be  closed, 
that  the  oven  may  be  heated. 

To  build  the  fire,  paper,  soft  wood,  hard  wood  and  coal  are  gen- 
erally used,  shavings  being  frequently  substituted  for  paper.  The 
principle  underlying  the  construction  of  the  match  is  reviewed  and 
applied  to  the  building  of  the  fire  ;  paper,  which  is  put  into  the 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION".  249 

fire  box  first,  crumpled  to  make  more  spaces,  which,  being  filled 
with  air,  cause  it  to  burn  more  freely  ;  soft  wood,  which,  having 
a  higher  kindling  point  than  the  paper,  is  heated  to  the  necessary- 
degree  by  the  burning  paper  (the  soft  wood  has  coarse  fibres  rather 
loosely  packed  together,  the  spaces  being  filled  with  air  when  the 
wood  is  dried,  while  hard  wood,  having  finer  fibres  more  closely 
packed,  has  less  air  among  the  fibres,  and  so  does  not  burn  so 
easily  as  the  soft  wood)  ;  and  the  coal  next,  which,  having  a  higher 
kindling  point  than  either,  must  be  heated  by  their  burning  to  its 
kindling  point.  The  wood  must  be  arranged  slightly  crosswise, 
that  the  air  may  circulate  around  it,  being  careful  at  the  same  time  to 
keep  it  close  to  the  ends  of  the  fire  box,  that  the  coal  may  not  drop 
through  the  grate,  and  so  not  be  kindled.  When  the  coal  is  well 
kindled  close  the  oven  damper  first,  that  the  heat  may  be  utilized, 
then  the  front  damper  and  chimney,  more  or  less,  according  to  heat 
required.  The  latter  damper  is  so  arranged  that,  even  though  the 
slide  on  the  outside  of  the  stove  is  wholly  closed,  the  opening  in- 
side cannot  be  entirely  closed.  If  it  could,  ignorant  or  careless 
persons  might  close  it,  and  the  fire  would  not  burn,  or,  if  already 
burning,  the  poisonous  gases  would  fill  the  room  and  much  injury 
be  caused  to  persons  there,  especially  if  sleeping.  We  also  learn 
that  after  the  fire  has  been  burning  long  the  ashes  collect  at  the 
bottom  of  the  grate  and  must  be  picked  out  with  the  poker,  as 
otherwise  the  air  could  not  reach  the  hot  coals,  and  the  fire  would 
go  onto 

The  Cookery  of  Starchy  Foods. 
Introduction :  — 

1.  Foods  containing  starch  more  extensively  used  than  any  other. 

2.  Examples  of  these  foods,  —  potatoes,  oatmeal,  rice,  flour,  com, 

etc.  (in  nearly  all  vegetables  and  grains). 
Necessity  for  cooking  :  — 

1.     To  soften  and  dissolve  the  starch. 

A.  Makes  it  more  palatable. 

B.  Makes  it  more  digestible. 
Experiment  with  starch  :  — 

1.  Starch  subjected  to  heat  alone. 

A.  Changes  from  white  to  yellow. 

B.  Changes  from  yellow  to  brown. 

C.  Changes  from  brown  to  black,  —  burned. 

2.  Starch  subjected  to  water  alone. 

A.    Starch  and  cold  water,  —  does  not  dissolve. 

3.  Starch  subjected  to  heat  and  water. 

A.     Changes  from  milky  white  liquid. 
a.     Grows  thicker  and  clearer. 
6.     ("When  boiled)  a  clear,  thick  paste. 


250  MANUAL    TEAD^ING   AND 

Explanation :  — 

1.  This  is  corn-starch,  —  any  starch  will  act  in  the  same  manner. 

2.  The  composition  of  all  starch  is  the  same,  the  difference  being 

only  in  the  appearance  and  size  of  the  granules. 

3.  Granules, —  microscopic. 

A.  Appearance. 

a.    Irregular,  wrinkled  or  folded  membraneous  sac 
(starch  inside). 

B.  Effect  of  heat. 

a.    Dries  and  hardens. 
C     Effect  of  cold  water. 

a.  Starch  is  not  dissolved. 

b.  Simply  a  mixture. 
D,    Effect  of  boiling  water. 

a.    Starch  absorbs  water  through  membrane,  swells, 
and  finally  bursts  membrane,  and  is  partially 
dissolved  in  the  water. 
Application  of  experiment  to  :  — 

1.     Potatoes  (composed  of  about  three-quarters  water  and  one-fifth 
starch). 
A.    Boiled. 

a.  Cooked  imtil  soft. 

b.  Removed  at  once,  as  boiling  water  partially  dis- 

solves starch,  and  the   potato  would  become 
soggy. 
£.    Baked. 

a.  Water  in  the  potato  furnishes  the  moisture. 

b.  Starch  absorbs  the  moisture  when  heated,  and  be- 

comes soft.     Potato  is  cooked. 

c.  Sldn  should  at  once  be  broken,  to  allow  the  steam 

to  escape,  because  as  the  steam  cools  the  water 
formed  would  make  the  potato  soggy,  instead 
of  "  dry  and  mealy." 
Conclusion :     All  starchy  foods  need  heat  and  moisture  to  cook  them. 
If  the  vegetable  or  grain  dees  not  contain  sufficient,  it  must  be 
added. 
Summary :  — 

1.  Review  principal  points  to  be  remembered. 

2.  Additional  knowledcre. 


Yeast. 
Introduction :  — 

1.  A  good  yeast  cake  known. 

A.  Light,  even  color. 

B.  Absence  of  dark  streaks,  —  probably  mould. 

2.  Yeast  cake  made  up  of  thousands  of  tiny  plants,  each  capable 

of  increasing  rapidly. 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION".  251 

What  yeast  is  :  — 

1.    A  plant,  —  one  of  the  smallest  and  simplest  forms  of  vegetable 
life. 

A.  Appearance.     Like  tiny  cactus  plant.    (Teacher  illustrate 

on  board  when  explaining  manner  of  growth.) 
a.    Transparent,  oval  cell. 

B.  Growth. 

a.     Conditions. 

(1)     Air,  warmth,  moisture  and  something  sweet. 
h.     Manner.     (Illustrate  on  board.) 

(1)  By  budding. 

(2)  Very  rapid,  —  can  be  seen. 
C     Where  obtained. 

a.    From  froth  of  beer,  usually,  while  fermenting. 
B.    Named  a  "  ferment." 

a.    Ferments  have  the  power  to  change  other  sub- 
stances without  being  changed  themselves. 
E.    Unfavorable  conditions. 

a.     Temperature  little  lower  than  212"  F.  kills  it. 
h.     Temperature  of  32"  F.  renders  it  torpid. 
Yeast  in  bread :  — 

1.  TVIiy  bread  is  kneaded  first  time. 

A,  To  distribute  evenly  the  little  yeast  cells. 

B.  To  thoroughly  mix  ingredients. 
C     To  make  the  dough  smooth. 

2.  Favorable  conditions. 

A.  Air  all  about. 

B.  Flour,  containing  starch  and  gluten. 

C.  Warmth  and  moisture. 

a.     Lukewarm  water,  —  why  not  cold  ? 

3.  Result. 

A.     Yeast  plant  grows.     In  growing  the  ferment  causes  the 
following  changes :  — 
a.    Part  of  the  starch  of  the  flour  is  changed  into  starch- 
sugar. 
(1)     Change  not  apparent. 
6=     Starch-sugar  converted  into   alcohol  and  carbon 
di-oxide,  —  a  gas. 
(1)     The  gas  (CO)  in  its  effort  to  escape  pushes 
up  the  dough,  it  is  rendered  porous  and 
is  said  to  have  risen,  —  it  is  "  light." 
c.     If  dough  is  left  undisturbed  —  another  change  —  it 
becomes  "  sour"  (lactic  or  acetic  acid  is  formed, 
according  to  circumstances). 
(1)     This  change  prevented  by  baking. 

4.  Bread  kneaded  a  second  time  when  dough  has  doubled  its  bulk. 

A.  Breaks  up  large  holes  caused  by  gas  bubbles. 

B.  Makes  texture  uniform  and  finer. 


252  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

6.    Bread  baked. 

A.    To  cook  the  dough. 

£.     To  kill  yeast  plant,  —  "  check  fermentatioEu" 

C.  To  drive  off  alcohol  and  carbon  di-oxide. 

D.  To  make  the  bread  eatable. 

a.    More  palatable. 
6,     More  digestible. 
Summary :  — 

1.  Review  essential  points. 

2.  Additional  information  about  yeast,  "  wild  germs,"  leaven,  etc. 

Baking  Powder, 

Introduction.     Composition  of  baking  powder :  — 

1.  Present  soda,  name  it,  —  cooking  soda  or  bi-carbonate  of  soda. 

A.     Measure  definite  quantity,  —  one  teaspoonful. 

2.  Present  cream  of  tartar,  name  it. 

A.     Measure  definite  quantity,  —  two  teaspoonfiils. 
Fact :  twice  as  much  cream  of  tartar  as  soda. 

3.  Give  fact :  baking  powder  is  a  mixture  of  soda  with  twice  as 

much  cream  of  tartar,  Avith   a  little  flour  or  corn-starch 
added  to  keep  it  dry. 
Experiment :  — 

1.    Mix  in  a  tumbler  one  part  soda  and  two  parts  cream  of  tartar. 

A.  Effect  when  dry,  —  no  effect  apparent. 

B.  Effect  when  wet  with  cold  water,  slight  effervescence. 

C.  Effect  when  wet  with  hot  water,  or  subjected  to  heat  and 

moisture,  rapid  effervescence,  escape  of  gas  evident. 
[Note.  —  Gas  is  the  same  as  that  in  soda  water  of  drug  stores.] 

a.  Gas  named,  carbon  di-oxide, 

b.  Commonly  called  carbonic  acid  gas, 
Explanation.     Facts  given  :  — 

1.  Cooking  soda  is  an  alkaline  substance,  which  contains  a  gas. 

2.  This  gas  is  liberated  by  any  acid  substance.     Proved  by  experi- 

ment. 

3.  Experiment. 

A.  Soda  and  vinegar. 

B.  Soda  and  lemon  juice. 

Result:  immediate. effervescence,  gas  liberated. 

4.  Reasons  for  not  using  these  acids  in  cooking. 

A.     Rapid  and  immediate  escape  of  the  gas. ' 

5.  Teacher  gives  fact  that  cream  of  tartar  is  an  acid  substance,  and 

its  special  value  lies  in  the  fact  that  It  acts  in  but  slight 
degree  imtil  heated. 
Practical  apj^lication  of  the  use  of  baking  powder  in  doughs,  etc.  :  — 
1.     Biscuit.     One  pint  of  flour. 

A.  Proi^ortional  of  baking  powder,  two  teaspoonfuls  (meas- 
ured rounding,  on  account  of  flour  or  corn-starch  in 
the  mixture  of  cream  of  tartar  and  soda). 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  253 

B.  Water  or  milk,  —  cold,  —  why  ? 

a.     Slow  escape  of  gas. 

C.  Handling  of  the  dough. 

a.  Warm  hands. 

b.  Heat  produced,  gas  escapes. 

D.  Conclusion. 

a.    Handle  as  little  as  possible. 
2.     Baked  biscuit  examined. 

A.  Risen. 

B.  Porous. 

C.  Dough  cooked. 
8.     Questions. 

A.  Where  is  the  gas  ? 

a.    Driven  off  by  heat  of  oven. 

B.  Why  is  it  porous  ? 

a.  Puffmg  up  of  the  dough  by  bubbles  of  gas  in  their 

efforts  to  escape. 

b.  Explanation  of  the  tenacity  of  the  gluten  in  the 

flour. 
(1)     Gluten  grows  tougher  when  kneaded, —  a 
second  reason  for  handling  the  biscuit 
dough  as  little  as  possible. 

c.  Heat  hardens  or  cooks  the  dough  before  gas  escapes, 

thus  retaining  the  shape  of  the  bubbles. 
Summary :  — 

1.     Review  of  things  taught,  and  additional  knowledge. 

A.  Composition  of  baking  powder. 

B.  Proportion  of  soda  and  cream  of  tartar. 
C     Why  add  flour  or  corn-starch  ? 

D.  Influence  of  heat,  moisture  and  handling. 

E.  Proportion  of  soda  and  cream  of  tartar  equivalent  to 

given  quantity  of  baking  powder. 

F.  Equivalent  proportions  of  soda  and  sour  milk. 
O.    Equivalent  proportions  of  soda  and  molasses. 


Albumen,  — Eggs. 
Introduction :  — 

1.     Albumen  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  and  nutritious  ingredients 
of  food. 

A.  Strength  giving. 

B.  "  Building-up  "  material. 
Albumen :  — 

1     Principal  sources. 

A.  Eggs. 

B.  Meat. 

a.     In  blood  principally. 
[Note  —  White  of  egg  contains  almost  pure  albumen.] 


254  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

Experiment  with  egg  albumen :  — 

1.  Albumen  subjected  to  the  action  of  heat  alone. 

A.     Is  coagulated,  becoming  tough,  hard  and  homy. 

2.  Albumen  subjected  to  the  action  of  water. 

A.  Cold  water,  albumen  is  dissolved. 

B.  Hot  water,— 134"'- 160-  F.  upward,  but  not  to  212-,— 

albumen  is  coagulated,  becoming  of  a  tender,  jelly- 
like  consistency. 

C.  Boiling  water  rapidly  coagulates   the    albumen,  which 

becomes  hard  and  tough. 
[Note.  —  Coagulated  albumen  will  not  dissolve  in  water,  hot 
or  cold.] 
Conclusions  applied  to  the  cookerj^  of  egg  albumen :  — 

1.  Heat  alone  will  cook  albumen. 

2.  Cold  water  dissolves  albumen,  will  not  cook  it. 

3.  Water  at  temperature  above  134'^-160'^  F.  but  below  212'  cooks 

albumen  slowly,  but  renders  it  tender  and  jelly-like. 

4.  Boiling  water  cooks  albumen  quickly,  but  renders  it  hard  and 

tough. 
Facts,  —  albumen:  — 

1.  Digestibility. 

A.  Uncooked,  digests  readily. 

B.  Cooked  till  tender,  almost  as  readily. 

C.  Cooked  till  hard,  digested  slowly  and  with  difficulty. 

2.  Flavor. 

A.  Improved  by  cooking. 

B.  Variety,  according  to  degree  of  heat  applied. 
Summary :  — 

1.  Review  points  taken 

2.  Value  of  eggs  as  food. 

3.  Manner  of  cooking  them. 

Albumen,  —  Meat. 
Introduction :  — 

1.     Albumen  of  meat  found  in  blood  and  juices. 

A,     Value  of  juice  as  comj^ared  with  rest  of  meat. 
a.     Contains  much  of  the  nutriment. 
.     6.     Contains  nearly  all  the  flavor. 
[Note.  —  Never  allow  juice  of  meat  to  soak  into  wrapping 
l^aper.]  , 

Experiment :  — 

1.  Meat  previously  scraped  and  soaked  in  cold  water. 

A,  Water  colored  red. 

B.  Meat  is  almost  white,  albuminous  juice  extracted  and  dis- 

solved by  cold  water. 

2.  Water  and  albumen  heated. 

A.  Red  color  changes  to  light  brown,  then  darker. 

B.  Water  becoming  hotter,  albumen  separates  as  "  scum." 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  255 

C     Water  boiled,  separated  albumen  becomes  harder,  settles 
as  sediment,  leaving  water  almost  clear. 

3.  Small  piece  of  meat  put  into  boiling  water,  temperature  lowered 

after  a  minute,  then  meat  allowed  to  remain  eight  or  ten 
minutes. 

A.  Outside  of  meat  hardened,  color  changed  to  light  brown. 

B.  Water  is  not  colored,  no  juice  comes  out. 

C.  Meat  cut,  inside  tender  and  juicy. 

4.  Piece  of  meat  put  into  boiling  water  and  allowed  to  boil  rapidly 

five  minutes. 

A.  Meat  hard  and  light-colored  outside. 

B.  Meat  cut,  hard  and  tough  all  through. 

5.  Meat  exposed  to  heat  alone. 

A.  Intense  heat  at  first,  then  lowered. 

a.     Outside  rapidly  hardened. 

B.  Meat  cut  open. 

a.    Inside  tender  and  juicy. 

6.  Meat  exposed  to  intense  heat  during  entire  time  of  cooking. 

A.  Outside  hard. 

B.  Cut  open,  inside  hard  and  totigh. 
Application  tp  preparation  and  cookery  of  meat :  — 

1.  Cold  water  draws  out  albuminous  juices. 

A.  Wipe  with  damp  cloth  ;  never  soak  meat  in  cold  water  to 

cleanse. 

B.  Method  of  making,  — 

a.    Beef  tea,  soups,  broths,  etc.,  obvious. 

2.  Boiling  water  keeps  juices  in  by  hardening  outside  rapidly. 

A.  Preparation  of  boiled  meat. 

B.  Caution:   long-continued  boiling  hardens   the  meat  all 

through  ;  it  is  tough  and  dry. 
G.     Best  method :  plunge  meat  into  boiling  water,  and  after 

outside  is  hardened  reduce  temperature  of  water. 
Fact :    Long,  slow  cooking  in  water  makes  tough  meat  tender. 

3.  Pupils  apply  principle  to  roasting  meat. 

A.  Kind  of  meat  for  roasting. 

a.    Tender. 

B.  Intense  heat  at  first. 

a.    Hardens  outside  and  keeps  juice  in. 

C.  Temperature  lowered. 

a.     Prevents  hardening  inside. 

4.  Broiled  meat. 

A.  Hot  fire,  —  hold  close  to  fire  at  first. 

a.     To  harden  outside  quickly. 

B.  Reduce  heat,  —  hold  farther  away  from  hot  coals. 

a.     Prevent  inside  from  becoming  hard  and  dry. 

h.     Attention  to  thickness  of  steak. 

c.     Only  tender  steak  should  be  broiled. 

(1)     Long,   slow  cooking  in  water   needed    to 
make  tough  meat  tender. 


256  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

Summary :  ■ — 

1.  Review  principles  learned. 

2.  New  applications. 

Lesson  on  Bread-making  * 

Description  of  the  yeast-plant.     Composition  of  flour.     Steps :  — 

1.  Flour  moistened. 

2.  Yeast  added  (ferment). 

3.  Dough  left  in  a  warm  place  (warmth  assists  fermentation). 

4.  Dough  kneaded  (to  distribute  C  O^  evenly). 

5.  Dough  shaped. 

6.  Dough  baked. 

A.  To  kill  the  yeast  plant. 

B.  To  toughen  gluten.     Firm  cell  walls. 
C     To  expel  C02,C2H5HO,H2  0. 

D.  To  cook  starch,  albumen,  etc. 

E.  To  form  crust,  convert  CgHioOg  into  dextrine  and  Cg 

Hx.Og. 
Dangers :  — 

1      Too  much  yeast. 

2.  Too  long  rising. 

3.  Too  little  rising. 

4.  Insufficient  baking. 

5.  Oven  too  hot. 

6.  Oven  too  cool. 

If  bread  sours,  the  C^  Hj  H  O  changes  to  H  C^  H3  O2,  acetic  acid. 
Reactions :  — 

Ce  Hjo  O5  =  05  Hjo  O5. 
CeH.oO^+H^O^CeH.^Oe. 
C6H,2  0s  =  2C2H5HH  +  2C02. 
C^HsHO  +  Oa^HC^HgOa-f-HaO. 
Starch  Cg  Hi 0O5.    Alcohol  C^  H5  HO. 
Dextrine  Cg  H^^  O5.    Acetic  acid  H  (C2  Hg  Og). 
Dextrose  Cg  H^g  Og- 

Yeast  is  a  low  form  of  vegetable  life.  It  is  made  up  of  cells 
which  keep  dividing  and  subdividing^  forming  new  cells.  The 
yeast  plant  needs  a  warm,  moist,  sweet,  nitrogenous  soil.  It  is 
necessary  in  fermentation.  Germs  of  this  plant  are  in  the  air, 
and  so,  to  keep  preserves  from  fermenting,  they  must  be  air  tight. 
The  yeast  plant  grows  by  feeding  upon  nitrogenous  matter,  taking 
0  from  the  air  for  its  breathing,  and  by  catalysis  changing  the  sugar 
into  alcohol  and  carbon  oxide.  If  the  yeast  plant  is  growing  too 
rapidly  to  get  enough  O  f I'om  the  air  for  breathing,  it  takes  O  from 
a  little  of  the  sugar  present,  and  tliat  sugar  changes  into  glycerine, 
succinic  acid,  etc. 


Girls'  High  School,  Miss  White's  class  in  chemistry. 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  257 

Flour  is  composed  of  starch,  gluten,  a  little  albumen,  cellulose 
and  a  little  oil. 

1 .  The  flour  is  moistened  to  give  the  molecule  of  water  to  the 
starch  to  make  dextrine,  and  to  make  the  flour  tenacious  so  that 
it  will  hold  the  C  O2,  and  to  help  the  yeast  plant  in  its  growth. 

2.  Yeast  is  added,  to  cause  fermentation  and  make  the  bread 
rise. 

3.  The  dough  is  left  in  a  warm  place,  because  warmth  assists 
fermentation  ;  heat  kills  the  plant,  and  it  will  not  grow  at  all  in  a 
cool  place, 

4.  The  dough  is  kneaded  to  distribute  C  O2  evenly.  Some 
knead  it  as  soon  as  it  is  made,  others  wait  until  it  has  risen.  If 
you  do  the  latter,  you  let  the  plant  grow  in  masses,  and  then  trans- 
plant it.  If  it  is  not  kneaded  enough,  the  holes  are  large  in  some 
places  and  small  in  others. 

5.  The  dough  is  shaped  just  to  make  a  pretty  loaf. 

6.  The  dough  is  baked  to  kill  the  yeast  plant,  toughen  the 
gluten,  expel  C  O2,  C2H5  H  O  and  H2O,  to  cook  the  starch,  albu- 
men, etc.,  to  form  crust,  and  convert  CgHjoOfl  into  dextrine  and 
Cell  12  Og. 

In  the  crust  the  starch  changes  to  dextrine,  then  to  dextrose  and 
then  to  caramel. 

Too  much  yeast  gives  the  bread  an  unpleasant  taste  ;  too  long 
rising  makes  it  sour  ;  too  little  rising  makes  it  heavy  ;  insufficient 
baking  makes  it  unhealthy. 


Course  in  Cooking. 

A  progressive  course  for  public  cooking  schools,  which  may  be 
more  or  less  elaborated  according  to  grade,  includes  making  and 
keeping  fire  ;  care  of  stove  ;  study  of  drafts  ;  study  of  fuel  and 
waste  ;  care  of  kitchen  and  kitchen  utensils  ;  setting  of  table  ; 
serving  at  table  ;  care  of  dishes  and  linen  ;  care  of  closets,  refrig- 
erator and  pantry  ;  care  of  diet  and  choice  of  dishes  ;  selection  of 
meats  and  vegetables  with  reference  to  health,  economy,  variety 
and  adaptation  to  the  habits,  the  season  or  the  market. 

A  logical  sequence  in  the  study  and  preparation  of  foods  may  be 
as  follows  :  — 

1.  Study  of  cereals :  how  to  cook  each  in  water  for  gruel  or  mush ; 
how  to  make  into  breads. 

2.  Study  of  vegetables  :  how  to  cook  in  water  and  how  to  bake,  roast 
or  fry. 


258  MAIfUAL    TRAINING   AND 

3.  Study  of  fruits :  how  to  serve  uncooked,  how  to  cook  in  water, 
how  to  bake,  how  to  preserve,  can  and  jelly. 

4.  Study  of  beverages :  tea,  coffee,  cocoa,  milk,  water,  lemonade, 
etc.,  how  to  make  and  serve. 

6.  Study  of  eggs  :  how  to  boil,  bake,  fry,  mix  and  serve. 

6.  Study  offish  :  how  to  cook  in  water,  roast,  broil,  fry  and  serve. 

7.  Study  of  meats  :  how  to  boil,  roast,  broil,  fry  and  serve. 

8.  Making  of  chowders,  broth,  soup,  stew,  gravy,  sauce. 

9.  Study  of  shell  fish  :  how  to  cook  and  serve,  oyster,  clam,  lobster, 
etc. 

10.  Making  of  pastry,  'pudding,  cake  and  desserts. 

11.  Study  of  ferments  and  effervescents :  *  yeast,  saleratus,  cream 
of  tartar,  baking  powder,  beaten  eggs  and  other  chemical  or  mechanical 
agencies  used  in  cooking. 


Liverpool  Training  School  of  Cookery. 
Syllabus  of  Laundry  Class  for  Elementary  ScJiools. 

Lesson  1. — Demonstration:  The  process  of  disinfecting,  and 
general  rules  for  washing  and  drying  table,  body  and  bed  linen, 
handkerchiefs,  starched  linen,  silk,  lace  and  muslin.  Instruction 
in  the  use  of  soda,  blue,  melted  soap,  borax  and  ammonia,  and 
information  on  the  composition  and  action  of  these  articles,  and  of 
alkalies  and  acids.     Use  of  petroleum. 

Lesson  2.  —  Practice  :  Practical  application,  by  the  children,  of 
the  work  shown  at  the  previous  lesson,  with  questions  on  the 
theoretical  instruction  given. 

Lesson  3.  —  Repetition  of  second  lesson. 

Lesson  4. — Demonstration:  On  mixing  starch,  hot  and  cold; 
cleaning  and  heating  irons  ;  management  of  fire  ;  arrangement  of 
ironing  table  ;  damping  ;  folding  ;  mangling  ;  ironing. 

Lesson  5.  — Practice  :  Practical  application  by  the  children. 

Lesson  6.  —  Repetition  of  fifth  lesson. 

Lesson?. — Demonstration:  On  washing  and  drying  flannels 
and  woollen  goods,  both  woven  and  worked,  and  silk  ;  starching 
and  ironing  linen,  print,  lace  and  muslin  ;  polishing  iron  ;  ironing 
and  folding  shirt. 

Lesson  8.  —  Practical  application  by  the  children. 

Lesson  9.  —  Repetition  of  eighth  lesson. 

Lesson  10.  —  Practice  of  the  different  processes  without  direc- 
tion from  teacher. 

Two  courses  in  cookery  are  given,  —  one  in  plain  household 


*  Such  practical  part  of  this  subject  as  is  necessary  to  bread  making  should  be 
given  with  No.  1. 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  259 

cookery  and  one  in  high-class  cookery.  A  course  consists  of 
twelve  practice  lessons,  ten  in  cooking  and  two  in  cleaning,  with 
the  corresponding  demonstration  lessons. 

The  ten  practice  lessons  in  plain  household  cookery  will  include  : 
(1)  Stock,  roasting  and  boiling;  (2)  Soups,  vegetables;  (3) 
Bread  and  cheap  cakes;  (4)  Fish;  (5)  Sick-room  cookery ;  (6) 
Pastry;  (7)  Puddings;  (8)  Cheap  dishes  from  tripe,  fry,  etc.; 
(9)  Cold  meat  dishes;  (10)  Melting  and  clarifying  fat,  and  the 
uses  of  macaroni,  rice,  curry  and  haricot. 

The  ten  practice  lessons  in  high-class  cookery  will  include : 
(1)  Stock,  roasting,  boiling;  (2)  Stewing,  grilling,  braizing; 
(3)  Various  ways  of  dressing  fish  ;  (4)  Soups,  vegetables  ;  (5) 
Puddings  ;  (6)  Sick-room  cookery  ;  (7)  Entrees  ;  (8)  Bread  and 
cakes  ;   (9)  Pastry  ;   (10)  Jellies  and  creams. 


School  of  Domestic  Economy,  Purdue  University, 
Lafayette,  Ind. 

First  Term. 

Lectures.  —  Home-making  ;  our  kitchen  interests  ;  the  art  of 
cooking  ;  bread  making. 

Practice.  —  Bread  making,  including  yeast,  ferment,  dough ; 
fermentation  of  dough,  baking  of  dough,  cooking  and  care  of 
bread  ;  graham  bread,  fancy  rolls  and  twists,  German  coffee  cake. 

Lecture.  —  Boiling,  simmering,  stewing. 

Practice.  —  Soup  stock,  beef  tea,  plain  soup  ;  boiling  meats  and 
vegetables  ;  stewing  meats  and  vegetables. 

Lecture.  —  Broiling  and  roasting. 

Practice.  —  Broiling  meats  and  poultry  ;  dressing  poultry,  lard- 
ing ;  dressing  meats  and  poultry. 

Second  Term. 

Practice.  —  Making  omelets  and  cooking  eggs;  cooking  cereals 
and  making  coffee,  tea  and  chocolate. 

Lecture.  —  Frying. 

Practice.  —  Frying  oysters,  ham,  chicken,  potatoes  and  mush; 
baking,  boiling,  frying  and  scalloping  fish  ;  making  fruit,  custard 
and  English  pies  ;  making  puddings  and  pudding  sauces. 

Lecture.  —  Mixing  and  seasoning. 

Practice. — Making  chicken,  vegetable,  and  fruit  salads;  mak- 
ing croquettes,  stews  and  hashes ;  setting  tables  and  serving 
food . 


260  MANUAL   TRAINING  AND 

Third  Term. 

Lecture.  — Household  management. 

Practice.  —  Housework  ;  laundry  work  ;  selecting  meats  and 
family  supplies  ;  handling  milk  and  cream,  making  and  taking 
care  of  butter  ;  boning  turkey  and  chicken ;  making  cake  ;  deli- 
cate desserts  ;  making  candy. 

Lecture.  —  Social  etiquette  and  usages  of  society. 

Practice.  — A  high  tea  and  sociable. 


Drexel  Institute  of  Art,  Science  and  Industry. 
Department  of  Domestic  Scieyice. 

The  course  in  domestic  science  is  designed  to  give  young  women 
a  liberal  training  in  matters  pertaining  to  the  organization  and 
management  of  the  home.  It  provides  courses  in  science,  with 
experimental  laboratory  work.  It  gives  scientific  training  in 
physical  exercises,  accompanied  by  careful  instruction  in  physi- 
ology and  hygiene.  On  industrial  lines,  it  gives  practical  instruc- 
tion in  cookery,  millinery,  plain  sewing  and  dressmaking. 

The  facts  of  chemistry,  physiology,  hygiene,  etc.,  are  correlated 
in  a  series  of  lessons  under  the  name  of  household  science.  These 
lessons  extend  through  the  entire  course  of  two  years,  running 
parallel  with  the  other  work,  and  showing  its  practical  bearing  in 
the  conduct  of  life.  There  are  also  special  courses  in  physiology, 
hygiene  and  sanitation,  to  which  the  public  are  admitted.  The 
courses  in  cookery  are  supplemented  by  lectures  on  the  chemistry 
of  foods,  and  the  dressmaking  and  millinery  courses  by  lectures 
on  the  chemistry  of  textiles  and  dyeing. 

The  chemical  and  physical  laboratories  and  the  kitchens  are  well 
equipped  with  the  newest  and  best  appliances. 

Dej^artment  of  Domestic  Economy. 

The  course  in  domestic  economy  embraces  the  following  topics  : — ' 

First  Year.  —  Chemistry,  cookery,  millinery,  physical  training, 
English  (literature  and  current  events)  and  household  science. 

Second  Year. — Physiology,  hygiene  and  sanitation,  dressmak- 
ing, decorative  art,  accounts,  English  literature  and  household 
science. 

The  fee  is  thirty  dollars  per  term  (five  months). 

The  full  course  covers  two  years'  work,  but  students  may  take 
a  part  of  the  course,  and  may  elect  from  the  foregoing  list  of 
studies  such  topics  as  they  may  desire,  subject  to  the  approval  of 
the  director  of  the  department. 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  261 


Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
Course  in  Domestic  Science. 
German ;  physics  (energy  and  heat)  ;  chemistry  (general, 
qualitative  and  quantitative)  ;  chemistry  of  foods  ;  chemistry  of 
cooking  and  calculation  of  dietaries  ;  biology  (bacteriology,  physi- 
ology :  emergencies  (sudden  illness,  accidents,  bandages,  splints, 
poultices)  ;  hygiene  (home  and  public)  ;  sanitary  science  ;  house- 
hold science  (ventilation,  heating,  lighting,  water,  etc.)  ;  household 
art  (architecture,  decoration,  furnishing)  ;  home  nursing  (theo- 
retical and  practical)  ;  sewing ;  cookery ;  laundry ;  household 
economy  (demonstration  lessons  in  all  branches) . 

Course  of  Lectures  on  House  Decoration. 

Lecture  1.  — The  Greco-Roman  house  :  Origin  of  type  ;  general 
aspect ;  mode  of  life  ;  dress  ;  style  in  forms  and  ornaments  of 
furniture,  etc.  ;  the  three  styles  of  mural  decoration  ;  some  general 
principles  of  mural  decoration. 

Lecture  2.  —  The  mediaeval  castle  :  (a)  Type  fixed  in  early  mid- 
dle ages  ;  stage  of  civilization  it  represents  ;  character  of  ornament 
(Romanesque  style)  in  mural  decoration,  furniture,  etc.,  and 
dress.  The  castle  in  later  mediaeval  times :  (&)  Character  of 
ornament  (Gothic  style)  ;  importance  of  wood-work,  and  what 
good  wood- work  is. 

Lecture  3.  —  Life  and  houses  in  the  middle  ages :  Country 
houses,  not  castles,  in  northern  Europe  ;  mode  of  life ;  character 
of  ornament ;  comparison  with  town  houses  and  castles. 

Lectured.  —  Mediaeval  town  palaces,  in  Italy:  Type;  mode  of 
life  ;  character  of  ornament  and  decoration  in  fresco  painting, 
wood-work,  sculpture,  etc.  ;  merging  of  decoration  and  architect- 
ure into  early  Renaissance  style  ;  characteristics  of  this  style,  and 
the  principles  it  embodies. 

Lecture  5.  — Palaces  and  villas  in  Italy  in  the  sixteenth  century  : 
Highly  developed  social  life  ;  character,  style  and  importance  of 
decoration. 

Lecture  6.  —  Castles,  town  and  country  houses  in  northern 
Europe  in  the  sixteenth  century  :  Type  remains  northern,  while 
architecture  and  decoration  are  influenced  by  the  Italian  Renais- 
sance. 

Lecture  7.  —  Seventeenth  and  eighteenth  century  :  The  modern 
country  house  ;  type  ;  arrangement ;  discussion  of  purposes  of  dif- 
ferent rooms,  and  style  of  decoration  and  furniture  suitable  to  them. 

Lecture  8.  —  The  modern  town  house  and  flat  discussed  from  the 
same  point  of  view. 


262  MANUAL    TRAENTNG   AKD 


Boston  Normal  School  of  Cookery.* 

The  training  given  at  this  school  is  exclusively  for  those  intend- 
ing to  teach  the  "  science  and  art  of  cookery,"  and  affords  a 
thorough  and  careful  instruction  on  educational  and  technical 
lines.  The  course  includes  the  science  and  technique  of  cookery, 
and  such  other  sciences  and  normal  methods  as  are  important  to 
a  study  of  the  subject.  The  physiological  aspect  is  one  of  the 
fundamental  considerations. 

The  aim  of  the  school  is  to  present  the  subject  in  a  broad  and 
attractive  way  ;  to  interest  and  instruct  by  such  methods  as  shall 
fit  the  pupils  to  fill  the  positions  of  teachers  in  manual  training 
and  domestic  science  schools,  for  which  there  is  a  growing  demand. 

The  class  is  limited,  thereby  affording  the  pupils  the  advantage 
of  constant  personal  attention  on  the  part  of  the  instructors,  as 
well  as  the  important  one  of  individual  manual  and  technical 
practice. 

The  time  required  is  that  of  the  school  year,  from  October  1  to 
June  1,  divided  into  two  terms  ;  the  hours  from  nine  to  two  p.m. 
each  day,  except  Saturdays,  with  the  usual  school  holidays. 

Outline  of  School  Schedule. 

The  instruction  is  given  by  means  of  lectures  and  recitations, 
as  well  as  by  continued  practice  in  the  kitchen  laboratory.  The 
"outline  of  chemical  theory"  is  taught  with  laboratory  experi- 
ments ;  also  the  principles  of  chemistry,  as  applied  in  the  "chem- 
istry of  cookery." 

First  Course.  —  This  includes  a  study  of  combustion  and  heat ; 
composition  and  use  of  fuels  ;  construction  and  use  of  gas  and 
coal  ranges  ;  composition  of  the  human  body,  and  the  use  and 
adaptation  of  foods  to  supply  its  constituents,  heat  and  energy; 
the  "  food  principles,"  their  chemical  properties,  and  the  applica- 
tion of  moist  and  dry  heat  to  the  conversion  of  food  materials 
into  good  feeding  ;  the  chemistry  of  cookery,  as  applied  and  dem- 
onstrated by  the  general  use  and  preparation  of  food  substances, 
in  the  making  of  simple  dishes,  illusti'atiug  the  fundamental  princi- 
ples of  cookery  as  well  as  the  methods  (of  cookery)  ;  the  various 
food  substances,  as  milk,  eggs,  fish,  the  cereals,  vegetables  and 
fruits,  are  studied  as  to  their  composition  and  dietetic  value,  use 
in  combinations  and  variations,  and  in  the  making  of  these  simple 
dishes,  with  ways  of  utilizing  food  materials. 

In  connection  with  the  work  thus  outlined,  lectures  are  given  on 

*  L.  A.  Nicholass,  principal. 


INDUSTKIAL   EDUCATION.  263 

'human  physiology,  by  a  physician  ;  on  the  anatomy  and  physiology 
of  the  digestive  organs  and  processes  of  digestion  ;  marketing, 
with  practical  demonstration  on  the  selection  of  meats. 

Second  Course.  —  This  includes  the  preparation  of  class  lessons 
and  outlines  of  subjects  to  be  presented  ;  practice  and  observation 
in  the  public-school  kitchens  ;  demonstrations  of  lectures  in  cook- 
ery ;  consideration  of  dietaries  ;  preparations  of  menus,  with  costs  ; 
table  setting  and  serving ;  history  of  pedagogy ;  lectures  on  psy- 
chology. 

Third  Course.  —  The  making  of  more  elaborate  dishes,  as  fancy 
breads  and  pastry  ;  fancy  desserts  and  cakes  ;  fish  dishes  with 
sauces  ;  ices  ;  roast  game  ;  entrees  ;  preserves  and  jellies  ;  candies. 

Cookery  for  the  Sick.  — This  course,  as  outlined,  affords  especial 
instruction  in  the  use  and  preparation  of  dishes  for  the  very  sick, 
as  well  as  for  the  convalescents  The  pupils  are  thus  enabled  to 
make  a  specialty,  if  desirable,  of  training  nurses  connected  with 
hospital  training  schools,  in  this  department.  The  course  is 
arranged  as  follows  :  — 

1.  Preparation  and  cooking  of  broths  and  acid  drinks. 

2.  Cooking  of  starchy  foods  and  gruels. 

3.  The  making  of  nutritious  liquid  foods  with  and  without 
stimulants. 

4.  Use  and  preparation  of  meat  and  other  jellies. 

5.  The  cooking  of  meats,  eggs  and  other  solids  and  combina- 
tions. 

6.  The  arrangement  and  serving  of  dishes  for  the  sick. 
Instructions  are  also  given  in  the  purchase,  use  and  care  of 

household  utensils  ;  the  fitting  and  equipments  of  school  kitchen 
laboratories,  with  costs.  Visits  are  made  to  business  firms,  to 
afford  knowledge  of  the  selection  and  manufacture  of  goods  and 
materials  for  practical  and  useful  purposes. 

The  diploma  of  the  school  is  given  to  such  as  satisfactorily  com- 
plete the  required  course  in  the  "  science  and  art  of  cookery,"  with 
examinations,  and  after  giving  practical  evidence  of  their  ability 
to  teach  the  same. 


Municipal  School  of  Useful  and  Domestic  Arts, 
20  FoNDARY  Street.* 

Object  of  the  School. 
The  Municipal  School  of  Useful  and  Domestic  Arts  is  designed 
to  give  young  girls  who  have  finished  their  primary  studies  the 

*  Founded  May  2,  1881,  by  the  city  of  Paris. 


264  MANUAL    TRAINING  AND 

means  of  learning  a  lucrative  business,  at  the  same  time  training 
them  in  household  cares,  and  thus  preparing  them  to  fulfil  the 
duties  which  await  them  in  the  family.  Young  girls  will  also  find 
in  the  school  courses  designed  to  fit  for  examination  those  who 
have  not  the  certificate  for  primary  studies,  and  to  improve  in  their 
studies  those  who  already  have  the  certificate.  Instruction  is  free. 
Pupils  come  to  school  at  8  a.m.  and  leave  at  5.30  p.m.,  daily. 
Only  day  pupils  are  received.  The  apprenticeship  lasts  three 
years. 

Professional  courses  :  dressmakers,  seamstresses,  embroiderers, 
corset-makers,  laundresses,  flower-makers,  milliners,  tailoresses. 

General  courses  (required  of  all  the  pupils)  :  primary  instruc- 
tion, domestic  economy,  elements  of  book-keeping,  drawing,  gym- 
nastics, cutting  and  making. 

During  the  whole  course  pupils  will  be  ti'ained,  in  turn,  in  plain 
sewing  and  in  kitchen  and  household  work. 

All  pupils  must  bring  their  lunch  or  take  it  at  the  school  lunch 
room,  as  no  permission  to  leave  the  building  can  be  granted  dur- 
ing the  day.  Scholarships  giving  lunch  and  clothing  may  be 
granted  to  pupils  deemed  worthy. 

At  the  end  of  the  apprenticeship  a  certificate  and  a  savings-bank 
book  will  be  given  those  who  pass  all  tests  of  the  final  examina- 
tions. 

Entrance  examinations  will  occur  at  the  school  Thursday,  July 
28,  at  8.30  a.m.,  for  the  first  list  of  applicants,  and  Thursday, 
September  29,  at  the  same  hour,  for  the  second  list. 

Applications  will  be  received  at  the  school  from  June  15  to  July 
27  inclusive,  and  from  September  19  to  September  28  inclusive, 
from  9  A.M.  till  noon-  Girls  must  be  at  least  thirteen  and  not 
more  than  fifteen  years  of  age.  However,  those  holding  primary 
certificates  may  be  admitted  at  twelve  years.  They  must  present : 
(1)  a  certificate  of  vaccination  ;  (2)  their  certificate  of  birth  ;  (3) 
a  certificate  from  the  mayor  that  they  are  of  French  nationality, 
and  reside  in  Paris  or  in  the  department  of  the  Seine.  Children 
living  in  suburban  towns  may  be  admitted  to  the  professional 
schools  of  Paris  if  their  rank  in  the  examination  warrant  it,  on 
condition  that  the  towns  to  which  they  belong  pay  the  sum  of 
forty  dollars  for  each  child.  These  girls  must  apply  in  the  first 
series. 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  265 


Report  presented  in  the  Name  of  the  Committee  of  Super- 
vision AND  Improvement  of  the  Girls'  School  of  Useful  and 
Domestic  Arts,  20  Fondary  Street,  on  the  Appropriation  of 

1892    AND    on    the   WORKINa    OF    THE   SCHOOL,   BY  Mr.   BaSSINET, 

Municipal  Councillor. 

Gentlemen  :  —  The  Municipal  School  of  Useful  and  Domestic  Arts 
was  established  as  an  experiment  in  two  rooms  of  the  city  school  for 
girls,  Violet  Street,  in  May,  1881.  It  opened  with  seven  pupils ;  in 
October,  1882,  there  were  fifty ;  finally,  when  the  school  opened  in 
October,  1883,  they  numbered  eighty-five ;  and,  as  the  rooms  were  not 
sufiicient,  the  municipal  council  then  voted  the  necessary  funds  for  larger 
quarters.  In  April,  1884,  the  professional  school  was  permanently  estab- 
lished, with  one  hundred  and  eight  pupils,  in  the  building  whe^e  it  now 
is,  20  Fondary  Street. 

At  first  there  were  two  rooms  for  sewing ;  to-day  there  are  twelve, 
with  two  hundred  and  seventeen  pupils  (dressmakers,  seamstresses, 
embroiderers,  makers  of  artificial  flowers,  corset-makers,  laundresses, 
milliners  and  tailoresses). 

Regulations. 

Pupils  are  admitted  to  the  school  daily,  except  on  holidays,  from  8  a.m. 
till  5.30  P.M.  They  may  bring  their  lunch,  which  may  be  warmed  at  the 
school  restaurant ;  or  may  there  obtain,  for  the  small  sum  of  five  cents, 
a  soup,  a  plate  of  meat  and  vegetables. 

Absence,  without  previous  permission  of  the  principal,  must  be  ex- 
cused by  a  note  from  parents  or  guardian,  stating  reasons.  During  the 
day,  parents  are  notified  by  the  principal  of  all  absences.  Unexcused 
absence  is  punished.  It  it  occurs  too  often,  the  sirpervising  committee, 
at  the  request  of  the  princij^al,  expels  the  pupil. 

As  pupils  return  home  each  evening,  parents  are  not  allowed  to  visit 
them  during  the  day  without  especial  I'eason,  left  to  the  discretion  of  the 
principal. 

Monthly  marks  are  entered  on  the  pupils'  note  books,  indicating  their 
work  and  deportment.  Tlie  principal  receives  parents  daily,  from  8. 30 
to  9,  and  gives  more  complete  information  than  that  entered  in  the  books. 

The  results  of  the  term  examinations  inform  the  j^arents  of  the  progress 
made  by  the  child  in  the  instruction  given. 

Pupils'  dress,  in  the  establishment,  is  optional,  but  must  be  neat  and 
decent ;  pupils  must  be  provided  with  a  black  apron. 

Pupils  owe  respect  and  obedience  to  all  persons  holding  any  position 
in  the  school.  The  committee  and  the  management  are  anxious  to 
accustom  the  children  to  those  habits  of  politeness  which  are  the  mark 
of  a  good  education. 

No  pupil  is  allowed  to  leave  the  building  alone,  without  a  permit  from 
the  principal,  which  must  be  handed  to  the  doorkeeper. 

The  rewards  in  use  are  :  good  marks  entered  in  the  note  books  ;  the 
vacation  trip  given  the  pupils  who  have  obtained  the  best  marks ;  the 


266 


MANUAL    TBA 


AND 


prizes  given  pupils  of  the  first  and  second  year ;  those  of  the  third  year 
also  obtain  savings-bank  books. 

The  punishments  are  :  loss  of  credits  ;  entering  a  bad  mark  in  the  note 
book;  reprimand  of  the  supervising  committee;  public  reproof;  sus- 
pension ;  and  expulsion,  on  the  principal's  report,  with  reasons,  to  the 
supervising  committee. 


Programme. 


A.  General  courses  taken  by  all  the 
apprentices :  — 

1.  Primary  instruction,  prop- 

erly so  called. 

2.  Elements  of  accounts. 

3.  Industrial  and  ornamental 

drawing. 

4.  Plain  sewing. 

5.  Cutting  and  making. 

6.  Instruction  in   housekeep- 

ing ;  mending. 

7.  Gymnastics. 

8.  Domestic     economy     and 

practical  instruction  in 
kitchen  and  household 
duties. 


B.  Special  courses  of  technical  in- 
struction :  — 

1.  Sewing  and  making. 

2.  Making   and    trimming 

handkerchiefs,    shirts, 
underclothing,  etc. 

3.  Washing  and  ironing. 

4.  Embroidering    goods    for 

dresses    (gOAvns)   and 
furniture. 

5.  Making  artificial  flowers. 

6.  Corsets. 

7.  Waistcoats. 

8.  Millinery. 


The  faculty  comprises  :  — 

1.  The  principal,  appointed  by  the  minister  of  public  instruction,  with 
the  advice  and  consent  of  the  ministers  of  commerce,  industry  and  the 
colonies,  on  nominatiqn  of  the  municipal  council. 

2.  The  assistant  teachers  and  instructors  in  general  subjects,  who 
have  hitherto  been  appointed  by  the  prefect  of  the  Seine,  but  who  shall 
in  future  be  appointed  in  the  same  manner  as  the  principal. 

3.  The  special  instructors,  apjDointed  by  the  prefect  of  the  Seine  from 
a  list  of  three  candidates  nominated  by  the  supervising  committee,  after 
competitive  examination. 


Medical  Service. 

Doctor  Bra,  school  physician,  appointed  by  the  prefect  of  the  Seine, 
makes  regular  visits  to  the  school,  for  which  he  receives  sixty  dollars 
per  year. 

A  large  number  of  the  pupils  who  have  left  the  school  since  1883,  even 
those  who  did  not  finish  their  apprenticeship,  have  experienced  some  gain 
from  the  trade  which  they  have  been  taught ;  several  have  remained  at 
home.  It  is  not  rare  to  find  former  pujiils  earning  from  2  to  5  francs 
(40  cents  to  $1)  a  day  as  embroiderers.  The  earnings  of  the  washer- 
women vary  from  $0.30  to  $0.60.  Some  are  in  business  for  themselves. 
The  dressmakers,  for  whom  it  is  more  difficult  to  find  places,  on  account 
of  their  numlier,  earn  from  $0.30  to  $0.70.     The  milliners  and  the  corset 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION.  267 

makers  find  places  at  from  $0.60  to  $0.80  a  day  for  the  latter,  and  $12  to 
$15  a  month  for  the  former,  with  meals.  A  few,  among  the  beginners, 
have  their  board  only.  We  can  as  yet  give  no  results  for  the  tailoresses, 
as  the  room  has  only  been  open  two  years.  As  for  the  flower  makers, 
the  trade  is  but  little  sought  in  our  quarter.  The  room  has  always  had 
from  five  to  seven  pupils,  excejjt  last  year,  when  we  had  nine.  Under 
these  conditions  it  has  not  been  difiicult  to  find  places  for  these  gradu- 
ates. Only  one  is  in  business  for  herself,  and  the  rest  (one  or  two  per 
year,  at  most)  have  found  places  at  from  $0.40  to  $1  per  day. 


School  of  Womanly  Handivtork,  Rome,  Italy. 

This  school,  founded  twenty  years  ago  by  one  of  the  public- 
school  teachers,  is  now  supported  mainly  by  the  municipality,  and 
is  under  the  pei'sonal  patronage  of  the  queen  and  a  commission  of 
two  gentlemen  and  twelve  ladies,  one  of  them  an  American.  The 
curriculum  includes  sewing  by  hand  and  by  machine  on  undercloth- 
ing and  shirts  ;  making  undervests  of  silk  and  wool ;  dressmaking  ; 
mending  of  all  fabrics  ;  lace  making,  for  use  in  repairing  laces  ; 
hand  embroidery  in  gold,  silver  and  silk;  machine  embroidery; 
stocking  weaving  ;  artificial  flower  making,  from  natural  models ; 
laundry  work  and  cooking  ;  also  drawing  and  geometry,  as  applied 
to  design. 

In  the  dressmaking  classes  the  work  is  carefully  graded  from  the 
simplest  garments  to  costumes  made  for  the  queen  and  ladies  of 
her  court.  The  laundry  department  sends  out  every  day  scores  of 
garments  beautifully  laundered  ;  each  graduate  from  this  room  is 
fitted  to  open  a  laundry  of  her  own.  The  cooking  classes  send  to 
patrons  daintily  prepared  breakfasts,  luncheons  and  dinners,  and 
also  cook  delicacies  for  invalids  and  prepare  diets  ordered  by 
physicians.  In  the  mending  class  room  diagonally  toi-n  cashmere, 
frayed  silk,  costly  laces  and  fans,  worn  table  linen  and  fabrics 
covered  with  intricate  designs  are  so  perfectly  mended  that  it  is 
difficult  to  determine  where.  The  drawing  classes  reproduce  many 
designs  from  priceless  bits  of  fabrics,  vestments  and  parchments 
which  are  centuries  old.  In  embroidery  remarkable  work  is  done 
on  silk  and  satin  with  gold,  silver,  bronze  and  silk  thread  ;  this  is 
shown  on  such  articles  as  superbly  wrought  church  vestments, 
table  covers,  rich  garments,  etc. 

The  secrets  of  many  ancient  tints  and  colors  have  by  long  and 
patient  experiments  been  discovered  at  this  school.  Every  shade 
in  an  India  shawl  or  any  elaborate  ancient  fabric  can  be  repro- 
duced by  these  girls  themselves  in  the  dyeing  room  of  the  school. 
The  old,   exquisite  dyes   are   bestowed   on   silk,  wool  and  linen 


268  MAIN^TJAL    TRAINING   AND 

threads,  and  these  are  carefully  spooled,  so  that  their  supply  of 
the  subtlest  tints  is  almost  unlimited. 


-The  North  Bennet  Street  Industrial  School. 

This  is  a  private  enterprise,  carried  on  in  the  interests  of  public 
education  and  social  reform. 

In  the  year  1885  an  order  was  passed  by  the  committee  on 
manual  training  of  the  Boston  school  board,  granting  permission 
to  pupils  to  accept  the  offer  of  Mrs.  Quincy  A.  Shaw  to  receive 
manual  training  in  the  North  Bennet  Street  Industrial  School, 
"provided  that  parents  of  pupils  should  so  request."  Cooking, 
housekeeping  and  laundry  work  were  offered  to  girls,  printing,  car- 
pentry and  shoemaking  to  boys.  To  these  clay  modelliog  and 
Swedish  sloyd  were  afterwards  added.  Housekeeping  was  com- 
bined with  lessons  in  cooking,  while  laundry  work  was  found  to  be 
impracticable.  From  that  date  until  the  present  time  classes  from 
public  schools  have  been  regularly  received  here,  during  school 
houi'S  and  under  school  discipline,  for  weekly  lessons  during  the 
whole  school  year.  Over  one  thousand  such  public-school  pupils 
received  manual  training  here  during  the  school  year  of  1890. 
Between  three  and  four  hundred  more  were  members  of  the  sum- 
mer classes  of  the  vacation  school. 

The  conditions  of  this  undertaking  have  been  such  that,  in  addi- 
tion to  giving  good  training  to  this  large  number  of  boys  and  girls, 
it  has  been  possible  to  do  some  valuable  experimental  work  in 
various  directions.  Cooking  and  Swedish  sloyd  are  conspicuous 
instances  of  successful  experiment.  This  school  has  also  served 
as  a  perpetual  object  lesson  and  laboratory  for  the  public  benefit, 
in  which  has  been  found  not  a  little  of  its  value.  Students  of  the 
subject  of  manual  training  have  been  constantly  invited  to  study 
and  to  criticise  the  work,  and  this  invitation  has  been  widely  ac- 
cepted. That  by  its  means  persons  have  been  helped  to  reach 
satisfactory  conclusions  is  seen  in  the  fact  that  manual  training 
movements  have  been  started  in  various  suburbs  of  Boston,  and  in 
many  other  parts  of  New  England,  whose  first  impulse  was  re- 
ceived at  the  North  Bennet  Street  School. 

Educational  carpentry,  both  after  the  Russian  and  Swedish  sys- 
tems, modelling  in  clay,  cooking,  printing  and  work  in  leather  are 
all  carried  on  at  present  with  full  classes  ;  but,  while  it  has  been 
found  possible  to  employ  educational  methods  in  the  last  two 
courses,  it  is  not  thought  that  these  should  be  urged  upon  the 
school  curriculum.     Sewing  is  an  important  part  of  the  work  of  the 


n^DUSTRIAL   EDUCATION".  269 

vacation  school  during  July  and  August,  and,  together  with  dress- 
making, is  also  a  feature  of  the  evening  work. 

The  name  of  this  school  is  a  misleading  one,  but  is  retained  as 
an  inheritance  from  earlier  days,  when  the  methods  of  the  institu- 
tion were  more  philanthropic  than  educational.  Philanthropic  and 
special  work  still  have  a  place  in  this  large  undertaking,  which 
reaches  by  its  ministrations,  by  means  of  the  work  of  the  evening 
as  Avell  as  the  day,  the  summer  as  well  as  the  winter,  more  than 
two  thousand  persons  annually. 


270  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 


Appendix  K. 


VISITS  OF  MRS.  HOPKINS  TO  VARIOUS  MANUAL  TliAINTNG 
SCHOOLS ;  WITH  RULES  AND  REGULATIONS  OF  ADDISON 
STREET  INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOL,  LIVERPOOL;  AND  PAPER 
ON  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY,  ETC.,  BY  MRS.  ELLEN  H.  RICH- 
ARDS. 


Equipment  and  Cost  of  Cookery  School.* 
Housekeeping  Equipment. — List  of  utensils  needed:  1  long- 
handled  bristle  brush ;  1  short-handled  bristle  brush ;  1  large 
feather  duster ;  20  small  feather  dusters ;  1  blacking  brush  ;  1 
polishing  brush;  21  small  scrubbing  brushes;  2  small  vegetable 
brushes;  1  vegetable  basket;  12  yards  dish  towelling;  6  yards 
glass  towelling*  18  yards  of  roller  towelling;  10  yards  coarse 
crash  for  dish  cloths  ;  5  yards  coarse  crash  for  oven  cloths  ;  5 
yards  cheese  cloth  ;  3  yards  dark  cleaning  flannel ;  1  yard  fine 
crash  for  clotlis  for  wiping  meat,  fish  and  fruit ;  10  yards  ging- 
ham for  aprons  for  housekeepers ;  1  table  cloth ;  1  extension 
table  ;  1  small  refrigerator  or  a  box  built  out  of  window  ;  box  for 
wood  and  coal ;  book  case,  with  drawers  below  ;  20  earthenware 
soap  dishes  :  1  two-quart  pitcher ;  1  one-quart  pitcher ;  6  large 
plates  ;  6  small  plates  ;  4  platters  (1  large,  1  medium  and  2  small)  ; 
6  cups  and  saucers  ;  3  one-pint  round  yellow  baking  dishes  ;  3  one- 
pint  oval  white  baking  dishes  ;  4  small  nappies  ;  4  medium  nappies  ; 
1  dozen  quart  bowls  ;  2  dozen  sauceplates  ;  1  small  beanpot  and 
cover ;  6  glass  tumblers  ;  1  small  molasses  jug ;  1  small  vinegar 
jng  ;  12  two-quart  Mason  jars  ;  12  one-quart  Mason  jars  ;  12  one- 
pint  Mason  jars ;  1  hammer ;  1  pair  scissors ;  inkstand,  pens, 
pencils,  etc.  ;  blackboard  and  eraser. 

Cooking  Equipiment.  —  Running  expenses,  about  one  cent  per 
pupil  for  each  lesson.  List  of  utensils  needed  :  20  hardwood  meat 
boards  ;  20  rolling  boards  ;  1  towel  roller  ;  5  rolling  pins  ;  5  wooden 
potato  mashers  ;  1  bucket  for  flour ;  1  twenty-five-pound  bucket 
for  sugar  ;  1  fifteen-pound  bucket ;  2  flat  wooden  spoons  ;  1  nest 
wooden  boxes  ;    1  wood-fibre  crumb-bucket,  with  cover ;    1    arm 

*  Class  of  twenty  pupils. 


rN-DUSTRIAL   EDUCATION.  271 

towel  rack  ;  1  small  towel  horse  ;  10  agate  (or  granite)  desk  pans  ; 
1  agate  dish-pan  ;  5  one-quart  agate  saucepans  and  covers  ;  5  two- 
quart  agate  saucepans  and  covers  ;  1  agate  hand  basin  ;  1  six-quart 
agate  stewpan  and  cover  ;  1  four-quart  agate  stewpan  and  cover ; 
20  tin  measuring  cups,  three  part ;  20  tin  measuring  cups,  four 
part ;  20  tin  plates  ;  20  round  tin  pans  ;  20  salt  boxes  ;  20  pepper 
shakers  ;  5  small  tin  saucepans  ;  5  double  boilers  ;  1  dish  drainer  ; 
1  wire  soap  dish ;  1  soap  shaker ;  1  chain  dish  cloth ;  1  two-quart 
tin  aipper  ;  1  dust  pan  ;  2  wire  potato  mashers  ;  1  nest  spice  boxes  ; 
1  two-quart  can  ;  1  quart  measure  ;  4  small  bread  pans  ;  1  medium 
bread  pan ;  2  shallow  cake  pans  (small)  ;  2  deep  pie  plates  ;  2 
shallow  pie  plates  ;  1  squash  strainer  ;  1  large  pudding  pan  ;  2 
bread  graters  ;  1  meat  pan ;  1  meat  rack ;  2  iron  muffin  pans  ; 
1  Scotch  bowl ;  1  double  wire  boiler ;  1  double  wire  toaster ;  20 
case  knives  and  forks  ;  20  vegetable  knives ;  carving  knife  and 
steel ;  20  table  spoons  ;  40  teaspoons  ;  1  basting  spoon  ;  1  skimmer  ; 

1  griddle  cake  turner  ;  6  iron  match  boxes  ;  1  sink  scraper  ;  stove  ; 
nickel  teakettle  ;  1  long-handled  shovel ;  1  poker  ;  1  lifter  ;  2  gal- 
vanized-iron  coal  hods  ;  5  French  frying  pans  ;  1  nutmeg  grater  ; 

2  doughnut  cutters  ;  2  biscuit  cutters ;  2  cooky  cutters  ;  4  small 
baking  sheets ;  1  flour  scoop ;  1  small  scoop  ;  1  small  grocer's 
funnel ;  1  tin  box  for  matches  ;  1  flour  dredger  ;  2  gravy  strainers  ; 
1  coffee  can  ;  1  tea  canister  ;  1  tea  strainer  ;  1  small  tea-pot ;  1 
small  coffee-pot ;  1  wire  spoon  ;  1  flour  sifter  ;  2  extension  strainers  ; 
1  set  skewers  ;  1  egg  beater  ;  1  lemon  squeezer. 


Equipment  and  Cost  of  Kindergarten  and  Sewing  School. 

Kindergarten. — Tables,  about  sixteen  dollars  each,  accommo- 
dating each  eight  children ;  chairs,  fifty  cents  each  ;  gifts,  one 
set  for  each  child.  The  running  cost  of  a  kindergarten  of  forty 
children  is  about  thirty  dollars  the  first  year,  afterwards  about 
fifteen  dollars. 

Sewing  School. — Needles,  thimbles,  scissors,  thread,  cloth.  In 
Boston  the  total  expense  for  about  fourteen  thousand  girls  in  the 
grainmar  schools  is  two  hundred  dollars  per  year,  or  about  one 
and  a  half  cents  per  pupil. 


Visits  of  Mrs.  Hopkins  to  Schools  in  New  York,  Williman- 
tic  and  Springfield. 
In  March,  1892,  I  visited  the  Training  College  for  Teachers, 
Professor  Adler's  Workingmen's  School  and  Mr.  Hugh  O'Neil's 
Grammar  and  Primary  School,  in  New  York  City. 


272  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

In  the  Training  College  I  examined  the  course  in  wood  carving 
for  girls,  chiefly  reproductions  of  historic  ornamentation,  borders, 
etc.,  from  Egyptian,  Grecian,  Latin  and  Moorisli  classic  designs, 
also  some  wood  carving  from  plant  forms.  I  examined  also  the 
wood-work  for  primary  and  lower  grammar  grades,  to  be  done  by 
boys  and  girls  in  the  class-room  with  adjustable  desk  tops  and  set 
tools.  I  saw  the  work  done  with  the  knife,  saw,  chisel  and  plane 
used  by  children  from  ten  to  fourteen  years  of  age,  the  models 
being  a  modification  of  sloyd.  Some  fine  card-board  construction 
work  and  some  flat  wood  carving  I  observed  also. 

In  Professor  Adler's  school  I  especially  investigated  the  sewing, 
embroidery,  millinery  and  draughting  systems  for  undergarments 
and  dresses.  The  work  done  in  this  school  is  not  essentially  dif- 
ferent from  work  of  the  same  grade  in  Boston  schools.  The 
mechanical  and  geometrical  drawing,  as  well  as  the  clay  model- 
ling, were,  however,  particularly  good. 

At  Mr.  O'Neil's  school  object  drawing  and  clay  modelling  from 
objects  were  prominent  features,  and,  considering  the  age  and 
antecedents  of  the  pupils,  they  were  suprisiugly  good.  Paper 
cutting  and  paper  reproduction  of  geometrical  forms  by  exact 
measurement  were  also  excellent.  Manual  training  had  become 
a  method  for  all  branches  of  study  in  this  school ;  observation, 
experiment  and  tangible  representation  were  required  in  every  de- 
partment of  work  and  thought.  The  children  were  creative  and 
independent,  as  well  as  practical  and  apt  in  the  use  of  tools  and 
their  hands. 

In  Brooklyn,  in  the  Pratt  Institute,  cookery  was  admirably  con- 
ducted as  applied  science  and  by  the  actual  performance  of  the 
art.  Fine  embroidery  was  also  a  noticeable  element  of  the  course. 
Modelling  from  casts  for  practice  in  art  and  sculpture,  and  draw- 
ing and  design  in  color,  were  finely  carried  out.  The  art  models 
were  very  complete  and  choice  for  all  this  work.  The  different 
laboratories  were  thoroughly  equipped,  and  all  the  conditions  for 
advanced  work  in  artistic  lines  as  well  as  in  all  the  lines  of  science 
applied  to  industry  were  lavishly  provided. 

I  talked  with  Dr.  Hailmann  and  Dr.  Klem,  during  my  stay  in 
Brooklyn,  about  the  manual  training  of  the  kindergarten  and 
primai'y  courses.  Dr.  Hailmann  advocated  much  freedom  in  the 
adaptation  of  Froebel's  occupations  to  the  genius  and  demands  of 
our  country  and  the  times.  He  thought  the  kindergarten  should 
be  so  conducted  as  to  meet  the  natural  tastes  and  aptness  of  the 
children  and  the  rapid  growth  of  mental  activity  and  of  new  ideas 
of  this  country,  as  distinct  from  Germany.  Not  so  precisely  what 
Froebel  laid  down  for  the  children  of  his  own  land  and  time  as 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION.  273 

what  he  might  lay  down  for  children  now  and  here.  Follow  nature 
in  the  spirit  in  wlaich  Froebel  followed  it,  keeping  the  principles  of 
his  pliilosophy  in  mind,  and  start  out  in  new  directions  of  industry 
and  activity.  Dr.  Klem,  on  the  contrary,  wanted  the  child  taught 
to  work  at  his  father's  trade  so  as  to  be  able  to  earn  his  living  as 
soon  as  possible,  and  to  begin  even  in  the  kindergarten  and  primary 
schools  to  make  especially  what  would  bring  some  money  return, 
however  small,  at  once,  so  that  he  could  help  his  parents  in  his 
support.  Dr.  Kallmann  emphasized  the  moral  element  in  manual 
training,  and  proposed  a  plan  of  mutual  helpfulness  through  the 
work  of  different  grades  of  manual  training,  —  the  card-board 
boxes  made  by  one  class  to  be  given  to  another  class  for  holding 
specimens  for  natural  science  study  ;  the  objects  made  in  the  sloyd 
classes  to  be  given  to  the  cooking  or  gardening  classes  or  to  the 
clay-modelling  classes  for  immediate  use  ;  the  objects  in  clay  to 
be  used  by  the  drawing  classes  ;  ^e  articles  prepared  by  the  sew- 
ing classes  to  be  turned  to  account  for  carpentry  or  cooking  classes  ; 
the  paper  and  color  work  of  the  kindergarten  and  primary  school 
to  be  sent  to  various  rooms  for  decorative  purposes,  and  every- 
thing done  for  mutual  and  social  good  feeling,  thus  laying  the 
foundation  of  social  relations,  and  connecting  every  act  with  the 
expression  of  kindly  feeling  and  utility.  Dr.  Kallmann  also  advo- 
cates the  preservation  of  every  effort  of  the  child,  however  crude, 
because  the  child's  feelings  and  self-respect  will  be  injured  by  its 
destruction  ;  he  deplored  the  habit  of  regarding  as  rubbish  what 
the  children  had  put  their  thought,  their  effort,  their  imagination 
and  their  affection  into  ;  some  way  should  be  found  to  appropriate 
them  to  the  pleasure  if  not  the  use  of  others. 

I  talked,  also,  with  Miss  Grace  Dodge  of  New  York,  whose 
connection  with  education  and  with  working  girls'  clubs  is  well 
known.  She  is  one  of  the  trustees  of  the  Training  College  for 
Teachers,  was  very  desirous  that  I  should  see  the  apparatus, 
models  and  work  of  that  course,  and  offered  me  every  facility  for 
observation.  She  talked  of  the  courses  suited  to  girls,  and  urged 
most  seriously  that  the  educational  motive  should  determine  the 
subjects  and  methods,  and  not  the  industrial  or  utilitarian  ends. 
She  thought  the  people  should  not  be  taxed  for  opportunities  to 
learn  trades,  but  that  the  industrial  schools  should  be  supported 
by  fees  or  by  public  charity  ;  her  great  interest  in  the  working 
girls  had  not  changed  but  only  confirmed  this  opinion,  that  the 
public  schools  should  keep  the  educational  aim  uppermost  in  all 
their  methods  and  departments  of  work  ;  she  went  so  far  as  to 
prefer  that  dressmaking  and  cooking  be  left  out,  as  they  were  too 
much  on  the  side  of  trade  teaching.     Her  opinion,  founded  on 


274  MAN^UAL    TKArN"ING   AND 

approved  good  sense  and  practical  experience,  as  Avell  as  large 
opportunities  of  studying  the  industrial  problem,  gave  great  weight 
to  her  testimony. 

I  visited  the  New  Britain  Normal  and  Model  School,  in  charge 
of  Mr.  Carroll,  who  seems  to  have  set  in  operation  a  most  truly 
progressive  system  of  training,  beginning  with  the  kindergarten 
and  reaching  through  the  normal  grade.     The  whole  work  is  a 
beautiful  example  of  free  natural  methods.     The  kindergarten  is 
the  living  spring  of  method  and  outgrowth  in  all  departments. 
Little  ones  of  three  years  form  some  of  its  classes.     They  have  a 
sand  garden  in  the  room.     Every  group  of  twelve  or  fifteen  has  a 
special  teacher,  under  the  guidance  of  the  kindergarten  principal. 
The  children  of   four  years  work  with  color,  putting  on  washes 
with  the  brush  upon  a  drawn  outline,  painting  from  a  real  object, 
e.  g.,,  leaves,  flowers,  a  house,  etc.     Some  of  this  color  work  was 
artistic  in  its  breadth  and  hari^ony  as  well  as  its  vivid  realism. 
They  painted  what  they  saw  in  tint  and  depth  as  well  as  variety 
of   color.  '  Classes  of   five  years  were  well  started  in  literature. 
Pictures  and  stories  of  Longfellow  were  given  them,  some  of  his 
poems  read,  and  they  had  a  model  of   his  house,  a  drawing  of 
which  they  colored  very  nicely  ;  they  pricked  and  sewed  the  drum 
which  his  father  got  him  when  a  boy,  and  the  foot-stove  he  carried 
for  his  grandmother ;  they  cut  out,  tinted  and  mounted  a  profile 
of  Longfellow,  which  was  to  be  the  frontispiece  of  a  Longfellow 
book  they  were  to  make,  in  which  all  the  reproductions  of  incidents 
in  his  life  or  such  writings  as  they  had  heard  should  be  presented. 
Hiawatha  was  begun,  and  they  had  modelled  a  peace-pipe,  and 
were  going  to  sew  outlines  of  a  papoose,  a  wigwam,  a  squaw,  etc. 
The  kindergarten  children  have  sloyd  in  the  shop,  with  the  turn- 
ing saw,  the  file  and  the  plane,  and  many  of  the  sloyd  pieces  they 
did  were  worthy  of   a  grammar  class.     They  enjoyed  the  work 
hugely.     I  saw  a  little  girl  perched  upon  the  top  of  the  bench  on 
her  knees,  scouring  off  her  semicircle  for  a  bracket  with  an  aban- 
don of   delight.     The  songs  and  games,  the  stick  laying,  block 
building   and  sewing  were  as  usual,  but  very  little  pricking  is 
allowed,  on  account  of  its  danger  for  the  eyes.     The  games  were 
rather  free  and  more  spontaneous  than  is  possible  in  many  kinder- 
gartens, because  the  children  were  mostly  from  cultivated  homes 
and  knew  how  to  play,  and  there  were  many  more  teachers  than 
in  an  ordinary  kindergarten.      But   the  prettiest   feature   of    all 
was  the  dancing ;   several  dances  with  correct  steps  and  form  are 
carried  on  in  the  most  spontaneous  and  graceful  way  by  teachers 
and  children  with  great  freedom  and  life.     It  was   a  beautiful 
sight. 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION".  275 

I  visited  the'  "Willimantic  Normal  School ;  the  kindergarten  was 
carried  on  under  the  principal,  with  normal  school  pupils  as  assis- 
tants. Each  class  had  from  eight  to  twelve  children  in  it.  A 
class  of  about  seven  years  were  studying  plant  life.  They  had 
beans  and  peas  under  consideration.  Each  child  was  provided 
with  a  bean  and  a  pea,  also  a  soaked  bean  and  pea,  from  which 
they  could  easily  separate  the  skin  ;  also  a  bean  and  pea  which  had 
been  planted  a  few  days  in  a  little  sand  garden  and  had  begun  to 
sprout.  They  studied  their  specimens  with  close  observation,  and 
then  they  proceeded  to  separate  the  skin  from  the  pea  and  bean, 
examined  it  carefully,  and  afterwards  drew  on  a  slip  of  paper  a 
copy  of  the  skin  of  the  bean  and  pea,  and  of  the  bean  aiad  pea 
before  being  soaked  ;  also  of  the  bean  and  pea  as  they  had  ger- 
minated with  the  stem  and  root  partly  developed.  After  talking 
with  the  teacher  about  these  different  specimens,  as  to  how  they 
grew,  and  after  examining  and  investigating  the  new  growth  of 
those  which  were  partly  germinated,  the  lesson  was  over  for  that 
day,  but  to  be  continued  by  thorough  observation  of  the  growth  of 
the  plants.  I  afterwards  saw  this  class  take  a  lesson  in  geometri- 
cal drawing ;  problems  were  given  them  which  they  immediately 
solved  by  pencil,  dividers,  rule  and  rubber.  They  worked  out 
the  problems  with  a  great  degree  of  interest.  Little  children 
four  years  old  were  taught  to  use  the  brush  and  a  wash  of  color ; 
and  to  copy  from  plants  placed  before  them.  Their  work  showed 
a  great  deal  of  feeling,  and  was  very  neatly  done.  The  brush  was 
very  neatly  handled,  showing  that  the  work  was  practicable  for 
little  children  under  proper  direction.  The  older  classes  of  the 
kindergarten  formed  the  afternoon  primary  school  classes  in  the 
hands  of  the  kindergarten  principal.  They  were  also  put  into 
the  shop  and  given  tools  for  wood-work  with  the  benches.  The 
little  children  seven  years  of  age  produced  very  neat  specimens  of 
sloyd  work,  using  the  cutting  saw,  chisel  and  plane.  The  boys  ten 
to  twelve  years  of  age  made  excellent  models  of  the  apparatus  of 
physics,  also  some  little  toys,  such  as  the  pop-gun,  water  wheel 
and  windmill.  They  had  working  drawings  of  every  process  in 
carpentr3^  The  children  were  allowed  great  freedom  in  the  shop. 
Nothing  they  made  was  destroyed.  It  was  considered  very  im- 
portant that  they  should  have  the  advantage  of  making  use,  if  they 
chose,  of  every  piece  of  work  they  had  made.  In  the  Willimantic 
School  the  teachers  of  the  normal  school  were  constantly  brought 
in  contact  with  the  pupils  of  every  grade,  so  that  they  might 
understand  their  needs  and  conditions.  Manual  training  was  used 
as  a  method  in  connection  with  every  method  of  study. 

I  visited   the    Springfield  schools,   and   observed    the    method 


276  MANUAL    TEAINING   AND 

formulated  by  Milton  Bradley,  which  was  carried  on  by  the  regu- 
lar teachers,  and  the  knife  was  the  only  tool  used.  The  patterns 
were  simple,  but  seemed  to  be  rather  difficult  for  the  knife  alone. 
I  think  work  done  with  the  knife  in  the  Springfield  schools  could 
be  much  better  done  with  the  chisel  and  the  cutting  saw,  and  that 
nothing  was  gained  in  manual  training  by  the  use  of  the  knife  in 
that  way.  The  knife  cutting  was  done  at  the  ordinary  desk  by  the 
pupils  of  the  third  and  fourth  grades,  grammar  school. 


Visits  of  Mrs.   Hopkins   to  the  Schools   of   Philadelphia, 
Washington  and  Baltimore. 

In  visiting  some  of  the  schools  of  Philadelphia  I  found  kinder- 
garten methods  carried  out  in  one  school  only  ;  this  was  the  Lan- 
dreth  School.  Here  I  saw  a  remarkably  well-organized  school  of 
several  grades  in  a  new  and  finely  appointed  building.  Paper 
folding  and  cutting,  clay  modelling,  sewing,  illustrative  drawing, 
object  drawing  and  collections  in  elementary  science  were  every- 
where to  be  observed.  Cases  of  specimens  of  school  work  in  all 
these  lines,  as  well  as  the  clay,  wood  and  metal  work  of  the  manual 
training  school,  lined  the  walls  of  the  main  corridor,  and  cabinets 
of  specimens  adorned  the  teachers'  attractive  room.  In  every 
school-room  two  housekeepers  were  detailed  each  week  from  the 
class,  whose  duty  it  was  to  distribute  and  clear  away  tools  and 
material,  wait  upon  visitors,  and  attend  to  the  machinery  of  the 
room  in  all  respects  without  special  direction,  thus  relieving  the 
teacher  and  the  class  from  waste  of  time  and  energy,  and  at  the  same 
time  training  the  members  of  the  class  in  turn  to  look  after  the 
domestic  appointments  of  the  room,  and  carry  a  little  independent 
responsibility  ;  this  plan  had  a  very  good  effect  on  the  conduct  of 
the  room  and  of  individuals.  Housekeepers  for  the  school  were 
detailed  in  the  same  way  ;  these  attended  to  all  general  notices  and 
announcements,  to  the  ringing  of  the  bell  for  opening  and  closing 
the  school,  for  recess  and  all  general  exercises,  also  to  the  setting 
of  a  table  and  serving  a  lunch  for  the  teachers  at  noon  in  the 
teachers'  room,  as  well  as  to  putting  all  things  in  order  after  it. 
Everything  moved  easily  and  like  clock-work,  and  the  practical 
exercise  of  housekeeping  was  a  capital  opportunity  in  and  applica- 
tion of  domestic  training.  The  work  in  manual  training  was  excel- 
lently graded,  although  the  drawing  was  rather  the  weak  spot. 
Geographical  modelling  in  sand  was  rapidly  and  accurately  done  ; 
as  a  sample  of  that  work,  the  United  States  was  constructed  physi- 
cally before  our  eyes  on  a  large  table.     The  school  seemed  to  be 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  277 

an  advanced  and  special  effort  toward  the  adoption  of  kindergarten 
methods  in  the  various  grades,  aud,  lilie  some  of  our  Boston  schools, 
awaiting  the  coming  up  of  the  slow  majority.  The  paper  work  is 
about  the  same  as  in  primary  grades  in  Boston. 

Later  I  visited  the  manual  training  school  for  boys,  which  is 
about  equivalent  to  shops  for  boys  in  the  North  Beunet  Street, 
Jamaica  Plain  and  Roxbury  manual  training  rooms,  but  carried  on 
into  metal  work  and  electricity,  as  well  as  more  advanced  car- 
pentry. The  literary  work  in  this  school  was  as  largely  by  labora- 
tory methods  as  practicable.  Maps,  charts,  in  fact,  historical 
illustration  in  every  form,  was  a  prominent  feature.  Everything 
in  manual  training  was  done  from  working  drawings  made  by  the 
pupil.  Specimens  of  graphic  representations  of  historical  study 
from  the  class  room  showed  facility  in  design  and  execution,  and 
apprehension  of  the  historical  facts  and  spirit.  The  buildings  and 
accommodations  were  contracted  and  meagre,  the  boys  very  much 
crowded,  and  ho  appearance  of  luxury,  or  even  of  thorough  con- 
venience, was  noticed  ;  yet  all  the  boys  were  industrious,  happy 
and  successful. 

In  Washington  I  spent  about  two  hours  in  examining  collections 
of  school  work  in  the  superintendent's  office,  such  as  were  ex- 
hibited at  the  Conference  on  Manual  Training,  in  Boston,  from  the 
schools  of  Washington.  Every  branch  of  manual  training  men- 
tioned in  the  Boston  Course  of  Study  was  represented,  and  was  of 
excellent  quality. 

I  visited  many  schools  of  all  grades,  and  saw  that  manual  train- 
ing methods  were  thoroughly  engrafted  on  the  schools  of  Wash- 
ington, or,  rather,  incorporated  into  them,  for  the  work  was  in 
every  grade,  in  logical  sequence,  thorough  operation,  mortised 
carefully  both  as  to  grade  of  school  and  kind  of  work,  and  com- 
pletely inter-related  with  all  the  school  work,  making  a  homogene- 
ous and  philosophical  as  well  as  practical  scheme  of  education  for 
the  public  schools.  The  cookery  rooms  were,  with  the  carpentry 
rooms,  in  every  large  school.  The  equipment  was  not  quite  as 
complete  as  that  in  Boston,  but  the  methods  appeared  the  same. 
The  primary  and  grammar  schools  are  without  exception  working 
out  the  scheme  of  manual  training  in  advanced  kindergarten  lines, 
and  the  high  school  for  girls  and  boys  is  a  remarkable  develop- 
ment of  the  same  idea ;  the  botanical,  geological  and  biological, 
as  well  as  mineral,  physical  and  chemical  laboratories  are  most  in- 
clusive and  heterogeneous  in  their  outlook,  as  well  as  harmonious 
in  their  purpose  and  method.  Music  and  art,  as  well  as  some  of 
the  arts  and  industries  now  so  commonly  pursued  by  both  young 
men  and  women  for  a  livelihood,   are   also  open  to  the  pupils. 


278  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

Washington  has  a  complete  system  of  manual  training  in  its  public 
schools,  and  I  do  not  see,  on  a  casual  investigation,  any  reason  to 
doubt  its  uniform  success. 

At  Baltimore  I  saw  the  cookery  instruction  department  for 
nurses  in  the  Johns  Hopkins  Hospital.  I  was  very  much  im- 
pressed with  the  thorough  and  finished  appointments  of  the  whole 
place,  and  the  scientific  and  complete  dietary  course  for  the  sick- 
room. The  neat  uniform  of  the  nurses  and  cookery  instructor 
was  very  suggestive.  This  course  is  one  of  closely  applied  science 
and  more  hygienic  preparation  of  food  than  is  followed  in  ordinary 
cookery  schools. 


Mrs.  Hopkins'  Account  of  Manual  Training  Exhibit,  London, 

July,   1892. 

Among  the  articles  presented  in  this  exhibit  were  sewing  on 
card-board,  canvas  and  coarse  linen  ;  macrame  work  ;  weaving  in 
straw,  worsted  and  twine  for  nets,  fringes,  rugs,  baskets,  etc.  ; 
knitting  and  crocheting  for  hoods,  mittens,  skirts  ;  long,  heavy 
stockings  for  deep-sea  fishermen  ;  undershirts  and  drawers  for  the 
ragged-schools  ;  wash-cloths  ;  towels  and  other  useful  articles  ;  as 
well  as  many  pretty  things  for  gifts  made  by  children  five,  six 
and  seven  years  of  age.  Practice  pieces,  patches,  darns,  mends, 
samplers  and  button-holes,  were  all  shown  ;  also  a  few  dresses, — 
some  quite  elaborate,  —  feather-stitching  and  flannel  embroidery 
in  the  advanced  classes  ;  but  the  making  of  garments  was  not  the 
most  prominent  feature  of  the  sewing  classes.  Some  sloyd  work 
was  exhibited,  as  well  as  constructive  card-board  work  for  use  and 
beauty,  geometric  solids  and  other  constructive  work,  —  quite  full 
and  complete.  The  inlaid  work  of  colored  paper  in  symmetrical 
designs  was  very  fine.  Designs  colored  by  w^^sh  and  brush  held  a 
large  place.  The  exhibit  in  color  and  drawing  from  the  pupil 
teachers  and  from  selected  pupils  of  the  advanced  classes  under 
specially  trained  teachers  from  South  Kensington  and  other  art 
schools  was  a  noticeable  feature  of  merit.  The  work  in  object 
drawing,  with  nature  drawing,  some  of  it  by  the  brush  alone,  was 
excellent. 

On  the  whole,  the  exhibit  was  not  essentially  different  from 
those  with  which  we  are  familiar  in  this  country,  and  differed  only 
in  extent  and  variety  from  that  of  the  Liverpool  schools.  A  large 
preponderance  of  useful  articles  was  to  be  seen  in  this  exhibit. 

The  work  in  color  is  carried  on  under  the  supervision  of  an  ex- 
pert scientist  and  artist,  who  acts  as  one  of  the  four  assistants  to 
the  director  of  drawino;  in  the  schools.     He  attended  me  in  exam- 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUOATION.  279 

ining  this  department.  The  work  in  drawing  was  of  a  very  high 
order,  and  related  to  every  department  of  study.  It  is  not  only  a 
method  of  expression  and  representation,  but  of  experimentation, 
being  connected  with  laboratory  Vork  in  the  sciences  as  well  as 
with  mathematical  and  mechanical  work. 

On  visiting  London  I  obtained  an  interview  with  Mr.  Diggle  of 
the  school  board.  He  offered  me  every  courtesy,  and  detailed  a 
member  of  the  board,  Mr.  McWilliams,  to  accompany  me  to  repre- 
sentative classes  and  schools  in  manual  training  departments. 
We  first  called  at  the  St.  Berner  Street  Board  School,  on  the  spot 
where  the  opium  joint  described  in  "Edwin  Drood  "  stood.  We 
visited  first  the  old  school  building,  which  was  an  old  rice  mill ; 
the  tall  mill  still  stood  there  ;  the  ground  floor  is  now  used  as  a 
storeroom.  I  saw  a  cart  loading  up  with  apparatus  for  drawing 
tables  and  large  T-squares.  We  went  up  stairs  and  visited  the 
cookery  class  of  Jewish  girls ;  the  teacher  was  giving  a  demonstra- 
tion lesson  on  a  fruit  pie  ;  only  a  gas  stove  was  in  use.  After  this 
part  of  the  lesson,  which  took  one  hour,  the  class  was  divided,  one- 
half  attending  the  demonstration  lesson  and  the  other  half  writing 
it  for  an  hour,  and  the  next  hour  vice  versa  ;  the  lesson  was  three 
hours  long,  —  each  child  has  sixty  lessons.  The  girls  are  eleven 
and  twelve  years  old.  The  laundry  room  we  next  visited  was 
large,  with  closets,  boiler,  tubs,  ironing  tables  and  stove  with  flat 
irons.  A  similar  class  to  the  cooking  class  was  receiving  a  lesson 
from  the  black-board  in  washing  cretonnes  and  colored  cloths. 
After  this  I  saw  the  girls  washing  at  the  tubs,  one  tub  being  fltted 
for  washing  colored  articles,  and  the  other  for  white  silk  scarfs  or 
handkerchiefs  which  the  girls  had  brought  from  home.  I  saw 
some  of  their  laundered  work  also,  cuffs  and  collars,  —  very  good  ; 
the  girls  evidently  enjoyed  the  work  very  much. 

We  then  went  to  the  new  school-house  near  by,  —  Berner  Street 
School.  It  was  a  fine  large  building,  with  well-lighted  rooms, 
sliding  partitions  largely  of  glass,  big  halls  and  play-grounds  for 
boys  on  the  top  of  the  building.  We  visited  a  sloyd  class  taught 
by  the  son  of  the  head  master ;  it  showed  very  good  work  for  the 
first  year,  —  in  operation  only  since  the  previous  October.  They 
used  knife,  plane,  saw,  etc.,  but  the  models  were  those  in  use  in 
Mr.  Larsson's  class  in  Boston. 

The  pupils  of  the  school  are  nearly  all  Jews,  Russian  or  Polish, 
some  German,  who  the  master  said  were  much  the  most  intelligent. 
All  have  to  be  taught  the  English  language,  and  much  the  same 
means  are  used  as  in  the  Eliot  School,  — in  fact,  when  I  described 
that  way,  the  master  said  it  was  exactly  his  way,  and  he  thought 
he  had  invented  it.    However,  I  saw  the  boys  spelling  small  words 


280  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

on  the  black-board  in  an  old-fashioned  way,  without  knowing  what 
they  meant  or  how  to  use  them ;  then  they  learn  to  use  a  book  and 
write  words,  and  up  in  the  higher  grade  to  read  fairly  well.  This 
was  not  in  accordance  with  the  method  described. 

All  through  the  school  were  pictures,  cabinets  of  science  objects, 
collected  by  pupils  and  teachers  with  some  help  from  a  school  fund. 
One  teacher  showed  me  her  schedule  of  object  lessons,  —  much 
like  ours  in  the  lower  grades.  Sewing  is  part  of  the  girls'  work. 
The  boys  come  for  extra  time  in  sloyd.  The  master  complained 
that  as  soon  as  the  boys  got  up  a  little  way  many  left  to  go  to  a 
Jewish  school  which  gave  them  some  advantages  and  was  privately 
endowed,  or  else  they  went  to  America.  Some  of  the  teachers 
were  Jewish  ;  the  teacher  of  the  upper  class  was  selected  in  order 
to  conduct  their  religious  exercises  suitably.  The  cookery  classes 
also  have  special  provision  for  meeting  the  Jewish  code  with  re- 
gard to  food. 

We  went  to  the  Highway  School  for  girls,  close  to  the  scene  of 
the  worst  White  Chapel  murders.  It  is  a  fine  new  building,  about 
five  years  old.  The  care-taker  lives  in  a  house  on  the  premises, 
and  opens  the  gate  to  visitors  ;  he  had  a  beautiful  show  of  potted 
plants  in  bloom,  with  pretty  shells  near  the  opening  of  the  j^ard. 
All  the  girls  were  out  at  play,  the  mistresses  with  them. 

I  visited  a  manual  training  exhibit  of  the  London  board  schools, 
and  there  met  by  appointment  Inspector  George  Ricks,  who  waited 
upon  me  and  explained  in  detail  every  part  of  the  work,  beginning 
with  kindergarten  occupations  and  proceeding  through  every  grade 
of  school  and  every  department  of  manual  training. 


Visits  of  Mrs.  Hopkins  to  the  Schools  op  Paris. 

I  called  at  the  office  of  the  Minister  of  Instruction,  and,  pre- 
senting my  letters  signed  by  Governor  Russell  and  U.  S.  Commis- 
sioner W.  T.  Harris,  obtained  a  "permit"  to  visit  the  schools  in 
the  department  of  the  Seine,  for  the  purpose  of  investigating  the 
manual  training  courses. 

I  went  to  the  Sophie  Germain  Superior  School  for  girls,  and  saw 
embroidery,  millinery,  fiower-making,  drawing,  design  in  water 
color  and  dressmaking,  tailoring  and  corset-making,  all  carried  on 
in  one  building,  and  more  extensively  than  with  us.  The  dresses 
were  fitted  to  lay  figures,  cut,  basted,  sewed,  pressed,  trimmed, 
etc.  ;  fashion  and  artistic  decoration  were  studied.  In  the  art 
department  costumes  of  various  ages  and  countries  were  studied, 
and  represented  by  drawing  and  color. 


rNDUSTKIAL    EDUCATIOIS'.  281 

I  visited  the  professional  manual  training  schools  of  Poitou 
and  Fonclary,  of  the  last  of  which  I  enclose  programmes.  I  saw 
kindergarten  work  like  our  own,  a  few  varieties  being  added,  more 
in  the  direction  of  art  than  industry.  The  sewing  consisted  mainly 
of  the  elements  of  common  sewing,  on  small  pieces  or  samplers. 

I  saw  laundry  work  and  cookery,  the  former  being  thoroughly 
attended  to,  the  latter  somewhat  meagre. 

The  history  of  art  and  study  of  costumes  of  all  nations  and  ages 
was  a  part  of  the  course  in  art  instruction. 

The  kindergarten  course  seemed  in  the  main  what  is  familiar  to 
us.  The  weaving  was  more  with  worsteds  than  paper,  and  orna- 
mented by  embroidery,  with  marked  attention  to  color  and  beauty 
of  design.  Laundry  work  as  well  as  cookery  was  carried  on  by 
girls  of  about  twelve  years  of  age. 


Report    of    Mrs.    Hopkins    on    Liverpool    Manual    Training 

Schools. 

On  reaching  Liverpool  I  called  upon  Mr.  E.  W.  B.  M.  Hance, 
clerk  of  the  school  board,  and  presented  my  letters  from  Governor 
Russell  and  from  U.  S.  Commissioner  HarriSo 

I  first  visited  the  Addison  Street  Day  Industrial  School,  under 
the  direction  of  Miss  Tarry,  a  certified  mistress  of  the  board. 
This  is  a  mixed  school,  for  children  of  five  years  and  upwards  who 
shall  be  committed  by  a  magistrate  as  neglected,  or  recommended 
by  the  school  board.  The  school  is  open  from  8  a.m.  to  6  p.m., 
for  compulsory  attendance,  from  6  to  8  a.m.,  for  voluntary  attend- 
ance, and  on  Sundays  for  voluntary  attendance  from  9  to  5.30. 
Secular  instruction  is  given  four  hours  per  day,  except  Saturday, 
when  it  is  three  hours.  The  apparatus  for  teaching  seemed  as 
well  provided  as  in  the  regular  elementary  schools.  The  maps 
and  pictures,  shops  and  tools  and  all  the  school-rooms  were  well 
equipped.  The  baths,  lavatories,  swimming  tanks,  barbers'  rooms 
and  disinfecting  rooms  were  amply  supplied  according  to  the  best 
sanitary  regulations.  Each  child  washes  face,  hands,  arms,  chest, 
legs  and  feet,  with  his  own  basin,  cloth  and  towel,  every  day  before 
9  a.m.,  under  supervision.  Each  child  is  served  with  three  good 
meals  per  day.  Religious  service  is  held  each  day  from  9  to  9.30 
and  from  5.40  to  6  p.m.,  denominational  preferences  being  re- 
spected. The  industrial  training  occupies  half  the  day,  and 
consists  of  mat  making  (rope),  simple  joining,  wood  chopping, 
netting,  sack  making,  paper-bag  making,  laundry  work,  plain  sew- 
ing, knitting  and  darning,  dish  washing,  scrubbing,  etc. 

Only  the  superintendent  may  inflict  or  order  punishment. 


282  MANUAL    TKATNING   AND 

Admission  is  either  voluntary  on  the  part  of  the  parents,  or  with 
a  recommendation  by  the  school  board  for  children  too  poor  to 
attend  regular  schools  (ill-fed,  ill-clothed  and  ill-cared  for),  or  by 
license  from  a  certified  industrial  school. 

I  also  visited  two  certified  industrial  schools,  one  for  boys  and 
one  for  girls,  at  Northumberland  Terrace,  both  established  within 
ten  years  by  Dean  Porson.  These  schools  take  children  committed 
by  a  magistrate  for  slight  offences,  or  found  in  bad  company,  or 
cruelly  treated  and  of  vicious  parentage,  from  brothels  and  haunts 
of  crime  ;  and  they  are  taken  care  of  night  and  day,  the  school 
clothing  and  feeding,  instructing  and  training  them  in  useful  occu- 
pations. The  children  are  taught  to  do  all  the  work  of  the  house, 
make  their  own  clothes,  boots  and  articles  for  sale,  and  to  do  plain 
carpentry.  They  are  not  allowed  to  leave  the  school  except  in 
charge  of  teachers  or  officers.  When  they  are  old  enough  they  are 
discharged,  or  put  to  trades  or  other  work  to  learn  an  honest  liv- 
ing. They  are  sent  away  by  the  emigration  act  whenever  an  oppor- 
tunity is  offered  which  can  be  approved  by  the  managers.  The 
average  cost  of  the  school  is  sixty  dollars  a  head,  per  year.  The 
girls'  school  is  in  charge  of  a  mistress,  and  the  boys'  of  a  master. 
The  appointments  for  bathing  are  about  the  same  as  in  the  day 
industrial  schools. 

I  saw  boys  at  work  in  the  laundry,  kitchen,  dining  rooms,  print- 
ing room,  carpentry  shop,  sewing  their  own  clothes,  making  their 
own  and  the  girls'  boots,  making  mats,  bags,  bundling  sticks  which 
they  had  sawed  and  split,  scouring,  playiug  games  and  studying. 
They  looked  healthy,  happy,  and  in  no  way  different  from  children 
of  better  circumstances,  except  in  their  uniform.  The  superin- 
tendent said  they  were  not  bad  lads ;  he  thought  them  as  much 
inclined  to  do  right  as  any  other  lads,  but  in  their  own  homes  it 
was  impossible.  District  visitors  and  school  visitors,  acting  some- 
what like  truant  officers  and  somewhat  as  missionaries,  keep  the 
school  supplied  with  pupils. 

At  the  girls'  school  I  saw  them  all  at  dinner.  They  rose  as  we 
entered  the  room.  They  looked  remarkably  healthy  and  quite  con- 
tent. I  saw  the  clothes  and  sewing  of  the  girls,  and  saw  their 
dormitories  (as  also  the  boj^s').  Each  child  had  a  bed,  about 
twenty-five  beds  in  a  room,  well  aired  and  lighted ;  a  superintend- 
ent's room  adjoining  each  dormitory,  and  a  glass  window  between. 
The  girls  had  blue  flannel  gowns  and  heavy  linen  aprons,  a  Sunday 
dress  and  hat  as  well  as  a  common  one.  They  make  all  their  own 
clothes. 

The  wood-working  shops  were  furnished  with  tools  and  benches 
like  those  in  Boston,  and  carpentry  exercises  were  tauglit.     I  did 


rt^DUSTEIAL   EDUCATION.  283 

not  see  anything  like  sloyd.  The  sanitary  arrangements  were  most 
noticeable.  Constant  bathing  and  perfect  regulations  for  clean- 
liness both  of  person  and  surroundings  are  secured.  Swimming 
tanks  are  in  daily  use  in  the  boys'  school. 

I  visited  two  of  the  elementary  schools  of  Liverpool,  in  company 
with  Mr.  Hance  and  Mr.  Hewett,  who  is  director  of  the  science 
work  of  Liverpool  board  schools.  The  science  work  in  the  ele- 
mentary schools  is  in  charge  of  Director  Hewitt  (author  of  various 
treatises  on  elementary  object  lessons  and  science,  and  recently  of 
a  book  on  manual  training)  and  of  four  assistants  who  are  under 
his  constant  training,  and  who  go  into  the  schools  and  give  lessons 
to  the  classes  with  the  help  and  observation  of  the  regular  teacher, 
who  also  has  to  carry  on  the  lesson  at  other  times  as  he  has  shown 
her  how  and  provided  the  materials  or  apparatus.  Tiie  lessons  to 
which  I  listened  by  two  of  the  assistant  directors  were  on  physi- 
cal phenomena,  to  which  I  think  most  attention  is  given  in  the 
science  course.  I  saw  no  evidence  of  observation  in  plant  and 
animal  life,  except  in  some  potted  plants  in  the  school-rooms  or 
passages,  and  in  the  kindergarten  occupations,  where  some  repre- 
sentations of  plant  forms  were  used  from  which  to  teach  the  names 
of  different  parts  of  the  flowers.  The  science  work  is  continued 
for  boys  of  the  higher  standards  in  a  chemical  laboratory,  as  an 
incentive  for  boys  to  remain  at  school  or  to  come  in  from  outside  ; 
and  evening  classes  of  the  same  sort  are  provided  for  those  who 
have  left  school.  I  understood,  however,  that  the  assistants  had 
a  peripatetic  museum  which  was  falling  into  disuse  ;  the  apparatus 
for  physical  experiments  was  very  simple,  and  easily  obtained  in 
almost  any  school. 

The  infant  classes  were  to  a  large  extent  taught  by  kindergarten 
methods  ;  all  the  kindergarten  material  was  conspicuous,  and  the 
children  were  engaged  in  the  occupations.  The  tables  were 
arranged  like  the  ordinary  school  desks,  but  with  the  seats  made 
to  drop  to  order,  so  as  to  give  standing-room  ;  the  tops  of  the 
desks  were  lined  in  squares,  and  the  slates  also  for  drawing  designs 
in  straight  lines.  Drawing  of  this  kind  was  going  on,  as  well  as 
tablet  laying,  bead  stringing,  block  building,  crayon  coloring  of 
outlined  forms,  paper  mat  weaving,  worsted  weaving  on  pins  in 
various  forms  of  life,  paper  cutting  and  folding,  drawing  of  geo- 
metric forms,  cutting  of  the  same  in  paper  and  card-board,  lead- 
ing up  to  flat  wood-cutting  in  these  forms,  paper  construction  of 
forms  of  life,  sewing  on  card-board,  canvas,  heavy  linen  and  com- 
mon cloth,  knitting  and  embroidery,  samplers  and  ornamental 
work,  clothing,  etc.,  as  in  our  schools.  All  this  work  was  admi- 
rably graded  and  connected,  so  that  it  was  hard  to  say  where  the 


284  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

kindergarten  ended.  It  all  combined  to  lead  up  to  the  shop  work 
and  science  work,  to  geography  and  higher  studies.  They  do  not 
speak  of  "  kindergartens,"  but  only  of  "  infant  classes,"  and  the 
numbers  and  reading  are  all  taught  by  these  methods.  They  do  not 
seem  to  have  the  "  games  "  as  a  part  of  the  course.  They  call  the 
shop  work  and  paper  and  card-board  work  "  applied  drawing;" 
it  all  seems  to  lead  to  trades  rather  than  art.  They  were  all  set  to 
work  with  the  manual  training  instruction  for  my  benefit,  and  it 
was  linked  together  so  completely  that  I  could  hardly  find  the  join- 
ing places. 

One  school  of  the  two  I  visited  was  in  charge  of  a  Scotchman 
as  head  master  ;  he  wore  a  cap  and  gown,  and  seemed  to  be  a  very 
strong  man  in  all  respects,  though  a  young  man.  They  had  a  large 
swimming  tank  in  this  building,  which  the  boys  use  daily.  They 
are  trying  to  get  the  girls  to  use  one,  which  they  are  loth  to  do, 
although  some  of  the  pupil  assistants  do  so. 

The  staircases  are  iron,  and  outside  the  building.  The  plan  of 
the  building  is  quite  worth  a  study  ;  sliding  partitions  of  plate  glass 
between  all  the  rooms,  so  that  the  master  can  overlook  many  rooms 
at  once,  or  the  rooms  be  thrown  together.  The  floors  slope  by 
steps  to  the  teacher's  desk.  The  windows  are  very  large,  of  plate 
glass,  high,  and  reaching  to  the  extreme  ends  of  the  room  and  either 
behind  or  at  the  left  of  the  class  ;  large  sky-lights  distribute  the 
light  so  well  that  there  are  no  dark  corners,  and  the  plate-glass 
partitions  aid  in  carrying  the  light  all  over  the  building,  and  accus- 
toming the  eye  to  distant  sight  as  well  as  near.  All  the  arrange- 
ments for  lighting  were  directed  by  distinguished  oculists.  I  saw 
very  few  pupils  or  teachers  wearing  glasses. 

The  teachers  giving  object  lessons  in  science  or  dictation  lessons 
in  training  were  doing  it  very  well  indeed,  and  seemed  intelligent 
and  refined.  The  pupil  teachers,  quite  young  girls,  were  helping 
in  the  kindergarten  occupations  and  paper  cutting  and  folding, 
also  in  the  lessons  in  spelling,  reading,  reciting  verse  in  concert, 
etc.  They  acted  in  a  natural,  unconscious  way,  moving  about 
among  the  aisles  and  affording  substantial  assistance.  Mr.  Hewitt 
said  they  grew  up  into  teachers  very  naturally,  getting  accustomed 
to  the  children  and  sympathizing  with  them,  learning  insensibly 
how  to  appeal  to  them  and  guide  them. 

The  playgrounds  were  ample.  The  pictures,  charts  and  maps 
were  such  as  we  see  in  our  kindergartens  and  other  grades.  The 
Scotch  head  master  had  cabinets  of  manufacturers'  material  in 
cotton,  wool  and  silk,  also  some  other  things  to  illustrate  geo- 
graphical products,  but  no  more  than  some  Boston  schools  have. 

There  is  used  in  these  elementary  schools  a  method  of  "cross 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  285 

classification,"  so  that  a  child  may  have  one  study  with  one  grade 
and  another  with  another  grade,  according  as  he  shall  have  passed 
certain  examinations  wliich  he  has  chosen  by  a  liberty  of  selection 
which  retards  or  advances  him  in  certain  subjects. 

Drawing  is  taught  to  both  boys  and  girls  in  the  mixed  schools, 
and  is  compulsory. 

I  visited  one  of  several  manual  training  centres  or  shops  for 
wood-work,  which  is  also  called  "  applied  drawing."  The  series 
of  plates  or  models  was  very  nearly  like  that  in  the  ifsorth  Bennet 
Street  or  the  Jamaica  Plain  School ;  exercises  for  practice  and 
mastery  and  objects  for  use  was  the  educational  motive.  Some 
sloyd  models  are  introduced  towards  the  end  of  the  course,  for 
training  in  forming  a  judgment  by  sight  and  touch  rather  than  by 
measurement,  as  in  most  of  the  course.  Mastery  of  the  tools  and 
of  the  exercises  is  the  object,  and  creates  an  interest  which  assures 
a  boy's  voluntary  continuance  in  the  shop  and  petitions  to  get 
extra  time.  Every  boy  in  the  board  schools  receives  the  instruc- 
tion from  ten  to  twelve  years  of  age,  for  two  or  three  hours  a  week 
for  two  years.  Some  voluntary  schools  send  classes  on  payments 
of  fees.  The  series  of  lessons  brings  in  models  of  physical  appa- 
ratus at  the  close.  The  boys  are  generally  from  the  sixth  standard. 
The  head  master  of  this  centre  is  a  young  man,  Mr.  Pierson,  who 
was  a  certificated  teacher,  and  then  studied  manual  training.  He 
is  quite  opposed  to  sloyd. 

The  University  College  trains  teachers  for  the  manual  instruc- 
tion. I  visited  this  institution,  saw  the  wood- working  shop  with 
exercises  in  mechanical  construction,  mortises,  joints,  bevels,  use 
of  tools,  working  drawings,  which  are  used  in  every  exercise  in 
the  manual  training  throughout  the  school  course  ;  the  engines, 
testing  apparatus,  electrical  apparatus  and  museums  of  various 
patents  started.  It  is  a  new  institution,  and  will  turn  out  thor- 
oughly trained  manual  training  teachers  from  the  graduates  of  the 
training  colleges,  for  the  elementary  schools.  This  completes  the 
manual  training  course  for  the  schools  of  Liverpool. 

The  cookery  training  school  was  closed,  but  Mr.  Hance  took 
me  to  the  training  class  at  the  Convent  of  Notre  Dame,  — the  best 
one,  he  said,  in  Liverpool.  The  Sister  Superior  showed  me  the 
tables,  gas  stoves  and  all  the  furnishings,  —  marble-topped  tables, 
porcelain  jars,  tiled  floor  and  glazed  tiled  walls,  —  very  nice  and 
clean.  I  saw  no  class.  The  Sisters  were  very  courteous  and  hos- 
pitable, giving  me  a  nice  lunch.  They  showed  me  the  sewing, 
which  was  fine,  some  of  the  embroidery  beautiful.  The  knitting 
was  conspicuous.  There  seemed  to  be  no  coldness  between  the 
Catholic  and  Protestant  schools.     The  Sister  Superior  was  a  noble 


286  MAIN^UAL    TRAINESTG   AND 

woman,  with  very  sweet  manners,  and  consulted  with  Mr.  Hance 
on  many  points  of  mutual  interest.  I  told  her  about  the  Boston 
cookery  schools,  and  how  much  had  been  done  by  Mr.  Murphy  ; 
she  seemed  delighted  with  the  idea  of  the  horse-shoe  tables  and  a 
gas  stove  for  each  pupil. 

Mr.  Hance  conducted  me  to  two  of  the  entrance  examinations 
of  candidates  for  the  Training  College.  It  is  an  examination  of 
nearly  a  week  ;  I  was  furnished  with  copies  of  completed  papers  ; 
it  is  conducted  by  government  inspectors,  and  is  much  more  diffi- 
cult than  our  entrance  examinations  for  the  normal  school ;  it  pre- 
supposed some  knowledge  of  the  science  of  education.  Only  about 
forty  out  of  several  hundred  were  to  be  admitted  to  the  Liverpool 
College,  which  is  the  best ;  the  age  of  the  candidates  was  from 
eighteen  to  twenty-one. 

There  are  nineteen  cookery  centres,  three  teachers,  eight  hun- 
dred and  eighty-four  girls  in  classes  this  year,  four  standards  six 
and  seven. 

Cricket  and  foot-ball  clubs  have  been  introduced,  and  matches 
arranged  by  the  masters  in  the  principal  schools  for  boys. 

The  cookery  centres  of  the  Liverpool  board  schools  are  in  an 
ordinary  class  room,  adapted  to  the  purposes  of  cookery  by  the 
use  of  movable  desk  tops  and  hinged  seats  let  down,  and  a  cabinet 
for  storing  utensils  and  materials  ;  gas  stoves  only  are  in  use,  and 
the  whole  equipment  is  very  inexpensive. 

The  tools  used  for  wood-work  are  the  common  carpenters'  tools, 
and  not  the  knife. 

The  manual  training  centres  or  shops  for  wood-work  were  estab- 
lished in  very  inexpensive  quarters,  one  large  room  with  mere  frame 
of  building  and  patent  iron  roof  ;  they  were  set  up  in  haste  as  a 
temporary  and  cheap  provision  for  what  was  regarded  as  an  experi- 
ment, but,  the  buildings  proving  all  that  is  needed  and  as  good  for 
the  purpose  as  any,  it  is  proposed  to  make  them  permanent.  The 
University  College  also  has  expended  a  comparatively  slight  amount 
on  its  quarters,  but  endowed  its  chairs  very  generously. 


RULES    AND  REGULATIONS  FOR  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  ADDI- 
SON STREET  CERTIFIED  DAY  INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOL,  LIVERPOOL. 

1.  The  school  shall  be  a  day  industrial  school,  within  the  meaning 
of  section  16  of  the  elementary  education  act,  1876,  for  the  reception 
and  detention  of  children  committed  by  a  Liverpool  magistrate's  war- 
rant, under  sections  12  and  16  of  that  act,  and  for  the  reception,  under 
the  provisions  of  sub-section  4  of  the  last-mentioned  section,  of  children 
under  attendance  orders,  or  without  an  order  of  a  court. 

2.  The  school  being  provided  by  the  school  board,  shall,  mider  the 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  287 

supervision  of  that  body,  be  managed  by  a  committee  of  the  board  (or 
by  snch  body  of  managers  as  the  board  may  from  time  to  time  appoint 
under  the  provisions  of  section  15  of  the  elementary  education  act 
1870),  hereinafter  called  the  "  managers." 

3.  The  school  shall  be  open  for  the  reception  of  children  of  all 
denominations. 

4.  No  child  shall  be  received  into  the  school  under  five  years  of  age. 

5.  The  school  shall  be  open  for  the  reception  of  children  of  either 
sex,  and  shall  be  conducted  as  a  mixed  school. 

6.  No  child  shall  be  received  into  the  school  who  is  incapable,  by 
mental  or  physical  infirmity,  of  being  benefited  by  the  instruction  and 
discipline  of  the  school,  or  who  is  suffering  from  any  loathsome  or 
infectious  disease. 

7.  The  number  of  children  received  into  the  school  at  any  one  time 
shall  not  exceed  two  hundred  and  fifty,  exclusive  of  infants  between  five 
and  seven  years  of  age.  The  school  board  may,  at  any  future  time,  with 
the  concurrence  of  the  inspector  of  day  industrial  schools,  authorize  the 
admission  of  some  larger  number,  provided  that  it  shall  in  no  case  exceed 
such  a  nvmiber  as  will  allow  in  the  school-room  and  day  rooms  ten  square 
and  one  hundred  cubic  feet  for  each  child  present  therein. 

8.  The  staff  of  the  school  shall  consist  of  the  following  officers, 
viz. : — 

(1)  A  certificated  mistress  as  superintendent ; 

(2)  One  assistant  mistress  ;  or  such  further  number  of  assistant  mis- 
tresses as  the  managers  may,  with  the  consent  of  the  school  board,  from 
time  to  time  consider  necessary  for  the  due  instruction  of  the  number  of 
children  in  the  school ; 

(3)  A  male  caretaker,  who  shall  be  required  to  superintend  the  indus- 
trial occupations  of  the  boys  ; 

(4)  A  woman  to  act  as  cook ;  and 

(5)  Such  further  assistants  (if  any)  as  the  managers  may,  from  time 
to  time,  with  the  consent  of  the  school  board,  prescribe. 

9.  The  superintendent  shall  have  sole  charge  of  the  school,  and  shall 
be  responsible  for  the  good  management  thereof,  and  for  the  due  execu- 
tion of  all  regulations  relating  thereto  ;  for  this  purpose  she  shall  have 
control  of  all  the  other  ofiicers.  She  shall  also  be  responsible  for  the 
quantities  and  qualities  of  all  supplies  received  for  the  school,  and  for 
the  proper  application  thereof 

10.  The  appointment  and  discharge  of  officers  shall  —  subject  to  the 
confirmation  of  the  school  board,  and,  in  the  case  of  the  appointment  of 
the  superintendent,  to  the  approval  of  the  inspector  of  day  industrial 
schools  —  rest  solely  with  the  managers ;  but  the  superintendent  may 
suspend  any  officer  for  misconduct  until  she  can  report  the  facts  to  the 
managers. 

11.  On  week  days  the  school  hours  shall  be  from  8  a.m.  to  6  p.m.  ;  but 
the  school  shall  be  opened  at  6  a.m.,  to  receive  children  who  may  come, 
or  be  brought,  at  any  time  between  that  hour  and  8  a.m. 

12.  The  caretaker  shall  be  in  attendance  at  5.45  a.m.,  and  shall  have 
the  school  ready  for  the  reception  of  children  by  6  o'clock.     All  children 


288  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

arriying  at  the  school  before  8  o'clock  shall  until  that  hour  be  under  his 
control,  and  he  shall  be  responsible  for  their  good  conduct. 

13.  The  teachers  shall  be  in  attendance  at  the  school  at  7.45  A.M.,  and, 
except  when  in  charge  of  children  taken  out  in  pursuance  of  Rule  20, 
shall  not  leave  the  school  during  school  hours  without  the  special  per- 
mission of  one  of  the  managers,  or,  in  urgent  cases,  of  the  superintendent. 

13a.  The  superintendent  shall  have  power  to  grant  temporary  leave 
of  absence  to  any  scholar  mider  either  of  the  following  circumstances, 
viz. :  (a)  the  serious  bodily  ailment  of  the  child  ;  (6)  the  existence  of 
some  infectious  disease  at  the  child's  home  ;  (c)  temporary  absence  of 
the  child  from  home ;  (d)  the  sickness  of  some  member  of  the  family 
upon  whom  the  child  is  required  to  attend ;  (e)  keeping  house  in  the 
temporary  absence  of  the  mother  on  exceptional  and  urgent  occasions  ; 
provided  that  in  every  case  the  particulars  of  the  leave  granted,  and  the 
reasons  for  it,  be  entered  in  the  journal,  and  that  the  leave  be  not  con- 
tinued beyond  one  fortnight  without  the  special  permission  of  the 
managers. 

136.  The  superintendent  will  be  held  responsible  for  the  regular  and 
punctual  attendance  of  the  scholars  and  teachers.  "V^lienever  a  child  is 
absent  without  leave,  the  superintendent  shall  inform  the  parent  thereof, 
shall  inquire  by  personal  visitation  or  otherwise  as  to  the  cause  of  such 
absence,  and  shall  make  such  record  thereof  as  the  school  board  or  the 
managers  may  require.  When  the  reasons  for  absence  are  not  satis- 
factory to  the  superintendent,  she  shall  immediately  report  the  cases  to 
the  school  board. 

14.  Every  child  sent  to  the  school  under  an  order  of  detention,  and 
every  child  sent  under  an  attendance  order,  or  under  a  license  from  a 
certified  industrial  school,  miless  it  is  otherwise  provided  in  such  attend- 
ance order  or  license,  shall  attend  the  school  during  the  whole  of  the 
school  hours  on  every  week  day  on  which  the  school  is  open. 

15.  No  child  shall  be  allowed  to  leave  the  school  during  school  hours 
without  permission  from  the  superintendent. 

16.  On  Sundays  the  school  shall  be  open  between  the  hours  of  9  and 
5.30,  for  the  reception  of  such  of  the  children  as  may  attend  of  their  own 
free  will. 

17.  Religious  instruction  shall  be  governed  by  the  following  rules :  — 

(1)  Religious  instruction  and  observances  shall  take  place  each  day 
from  9  to  9.30  a.m.,  and  from  5.40  to  6  p.m. 

(2)  The  ordinary  religious  instruction  and  observances  shall  consist 
of  prayers  and  hymns  and  reading  from  the  Bible,  with  such  explanations 
and  instructions  therefrom  in  the  principles  of  religion  and  morality  as 
are  suited  to  the  capacity  of  children ;  and  in  the  selection  of  such  prayers 
and  hymns,  and  in  explanations  and  instruction  from  the  Bible,  no  attempt 
shall  be  made  to  attach  children  to,  or  to  detach  them  from,  any  partic- 
ular denomination. 

(3)  No  child  shall  attend  the  religious  instruction  or  observances,  or 
shall  be  taught  the  catechism  or  tenets  of  any  religion,  to  which  his 
parents  or  guardians  object,  or  other  than  that  to  which  he  is  stated  in 
the  order  of  detention  or  attendance  order  to  belong. 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  289 

(4)  With  regard  to  children  who  are  specified  in  the  order  of  deten- 
tion or  attendance  order  as  belonging  to  any  particular  religious  per- 
suasion, the  managers  shall,  so  far  as  practicable,  make  arrangements 
that  such  children  shall,  during  the  times  set  apart  for  religious  instruc- 
tion, attend  religious  instruction  or  observances  conducted  voluntarily 
by  ministers  of  such  persuasions,  or  by  such  responsible  teachers  of  the 
school  or  other  persons  as  are  delegated  by  such  ministers  with  the 
approval  of  the  board. 

(5)  While  any  religious  instruction  or  observance  is  going  on,  none 
of  the  scholars  or  teachers  shall  be  employed  in  any  other  manner  in  the 
same  room. 

(6)  Facilities  shall  be  provided  for  special  religious  instruction  being 
given  at  stated  times  on  Sunday,  by  volunteers,  to  such  of  the  children 
of  their  respective  churches  as  of  their  own  free  will  may  attend  such 
instruction, 

18.  The  secular  instruction  shall  consist  of  reading,  spelling,  writing, 
dictation,  arithmetic,  vocal  music  and  drill ;  and,  as  far  as  practicable, 
of  the  elements  of  grammar,  geography  and  English  history.  It  shall 
be  given  on  Saturday  for  three,  and  on  each  other  week  day  for  four, 
hours. 

19.  The  industrial  training  shall  consist :  — 

For  the  boys :  Of  such  industrial  occupations,  including  mat  making, 
simple  joinery,  wood  chopping,  sack  making,  netting,  paper  bag  mak- 
ing, etc.,  as  the  board  or  the  managers  may  from  time  to  time  consider 
practicable  and  desirable. 

For  the  girls  :     Of  plain  sewing,  cleaning  and  other  domestic  M''ork. 

20.  The  children  shall  be  allowed  two  hours  daily  for  recreation  and 
exercise,  and  may  be  taken  out  for  exercise  beyond  the  boundaries  of 
the  school. 

21.  On  week  days  all  the  children,  and  on  Sundays  such  of  them  as 
may  voluntarily  attend,  shall  be  supplied  with  three  meals  a  day,  of  plain, 
wholesome  food,  according  to  a  dietary  to  be  approved  by  the  inspector 
of  day  industrial  schools. 

22.  The  hours  for  religious  and  secular  instruction,  indvistrial  work, 
recreation,  meals,  etc.,  shall  be  regulated  by  a  time  table,  to  be  approved 
by  the  inspector  of  day  industrial  schools,  and  to  be  hung  up  in  a  con- 
spicuous position  in  the  school-room. 

23.  The  superintendent  shall  alone  have  the  power  of  punishing  or 
ordering  the  punishment  of  children  in  the  school,  and  shall  be  directly 
responsible  for  all  punishments  inflicted.  These  shall  be  of  the  follow- 
ing descriptions  only :  — 

(a)   Forfeiture  of  rewards  and  privileges,  including  recreation. 
(6)    Reduction  in  quantitj^  or  quality  of  food,  —  but  no  child  shall  be 
deprived  of  two  meals  in  succession. 

(c)  Confinement  in  a  separate,  but  not  dark,  room  during  the  school 
hours. 

(d)  In  the  case  of  boys,  moderate  personal  correction  by  whipping 
with  a  common  school  rod  or  cane,  and  not  to  exceed  at  any  one  time 
five  strokes  in  the  case  of  a  boy  under  nine  years  of  age,  or  nine  in  the 


290  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

case  of  a  boy  above  that  age.*     ISTo  punishment  for  any  particular  ollence 
to  extend  beyond  the  day  on  which  it  is  inflicted. 

All  punishnaents,  with  the  fault  committed,  shall  be  recorded  in  a  book 
kei)t  for  the  purpose,  to  be  laid  before  the  managers  at  their  meetings, 
and  to  be  open  to  the  insj^ector  for  examination. 

24.  The  superintendent  shall  keep  a  journal,  —  to  be  laid  before  the 
managers  at  their  meetings,  —  in  which  she  shall  record  all  occurrences 
of  importance  ;  and  shall  also  keep  or  cause  to  be  kept  the  following 
books  and  records,  viz. :  — 

(a)  A  register  of  admissions,  containing  a  record  of  the  date  of  admis- 
sion, name,  age,  residence  and  religious  denomination  of  each  child 
received  into  the  school,  and  whether  it  Avas  admitted  under  a  voluntary 
arrangement,  a  license  from  a  certified  industrial  school,  an  attendance 
order  or  an  order  of  detention,  in  the  last  case  also  specifying  whether 
the  original  proceedings  were  taken  under  sub-section  1  or  under  sub- 
section 2  of  section  11  of  the  elementary  education  act  (187G)  ;  also  such 
particulars  concerning  its  parentage,  previous  education  and  circum- 
stances as  may  be  found  requisite. 

(6)  Registers  of  daily  attendance,  distinguishing  therein  the  children 
according  as  they  are  received  under  voluntary  arrangements,  attendance 
orders  or  orders  of  detention,  and  in  the  last  case  whether  the  original 
proceedings  were  taken  under  sub-section  1  or  under  sub-section  2  of 
section  11  of  the  elementary  education  act  (1876). 

(c)  A  punishment  book,  in  which  all  punishments  and  privations 
shall  be  recorded,  as  required  by  Rule  23. 

(cZ)  A  stock  and  store  book,  containing  particulars  of  all  materials 
and  provisions  ordered  and  received  for  the  school,  and  the  manner  in 
which  they  have  respectively  been  consumed ;  also  of  all  orders  for  work 
executed  by  the  school. 

(e)  A  license  register,  containing  particulars  of  the  name,  address  and 
school  attendance  of  each  child  ]placed  out  on  license,  together  with  the 
dates  of  the  license,  its  renewal,  and,  where  necessary,  its  revocation. 

25.  The  school  shall  at  all  times  be  open  to  the  inspector  of  day  in- 
dustrial schools.  Members  and  authorized  officers  of  the  board  may 
visit  and  inspect  the  school  and  examine  the  books  at  any  convenient 
time.  Parents  of  children  in  the  school  may,  if  necessary,  communicate 
personally  with  the  superintendent  on  Monday  morning  before  ten 
o'clock.  With  these  exceptions,  no  visitor  shall  be  allowed  to  enter  the 
school  during  school  hours  without  the  written  authority  of  the  clerk  to 
the  board,  of  one  of  the  managers,  of  a  member  of  the  board,  or,  in  ur- 
gent cases,  of  the  superintendent.  (This  rule  does  not  apply  to  trades- 
people or  customers  coming  to  the  school  on  business.) 

26.  The  superintendent  shall  regularly  and  punctually  forward  to  the 
inspector  of  day  industrial  schools  the  following  notices  and  returns, 
viz. : — 


*  The  superintendent  shall  not  be  at  liberty  to  punish  any  child  by  both  corporal 
punishment  and  confinement  in  a  separate  room  at  the  same  time,  or  for  the  same 
offence. 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION,  291 

(ffl)  Notice  on.  a  form  to  be  apiiroved  by  the  inspector  immediately 
after  the  fact  of  the  admissiou  of  each  child,  with  information  as  to 
whether  such  admission  is  under  an  order  of  detention,  an  attendance 
order  or  a  voluntary  arrangement,  and  as  to  the  period  for  which  the 
child  is  received. 

(6)  Notice  on  a  form  to  be  approved  by  the  inspector  at  the  end  of 
each  month  of  any  child  having  died,  left  the  district,  been  transferred 
to  another  day  industrial  school,  committed  to  an  ordinary  industrial 
school,  placed  out  on  license  or  allowed  to  be  absent  on  leave. 

(c)  The  registers  of  attendances  duly  vouched  by  herself  and  the 
managers  at  the  end  of  each  quarter,  and  at  such  other  times  as  the  in- 
spector may  require  ;  also  at  the  end  of  each  quarter  an  account  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  scholars  in  the  school,  distinguishing  committed 
from  voluntary  cases,  and  si^ecifying  against  each  child's  name  the  num- 
ber of  attendances  it  made  during  the  quarter. 

(d)  In  the  month  of  January  in  each  year  a  full  statement,  vouched 
by  the  managers,  of  the  receipts  and  expenditure  of  the  school  for  the 
year  ending  on  the  31st  of  December  immediately  preceding,  and  show- 
ing all  outstanding  debts  and  liabilities. 

(e)  Such  other  returns  and  accounts  as  the  inspector  may  from  time 
to  time  require. 

27  All  books  and  journals  of  the  school  shall  be  open  to  the  inspec- 
tor for  examination,  and  if  he  think  it  necessary  he  may  examine  any 
teacher  employed  in  the  instruction  of  the  children. 

28.  No  officer  of  the  school  shall  receive  a,nj  gratuities  .from  the 
children  or  their  parents,  or  from  tradespeople,  customers  or  any  other 
persons,  on  pain  of  immediate  dismissal. 

29.  No  officer  shall  become  security  for  any  person,  or  engage  in 
any  loan  transaction  with  any  other  officer  of  the  board. 

30.  The  officers  shall  maintain  the  discipline  and  order  of  the  school, 
and  carefully  attend  to  the  instruction  and  training  of  the  children  in 
conformity  with  these  rules  and  with  the  provisions  of  the  order  in  coun- 
cil of  the  t^^entieth  day  of  March,  1877.  The  children  shall  comply  with 
these  rules  and  obey  the  officers  of  the  school ;  and  any  wilful  neglect 
or  refusal  to  so  comply  or  obey  shall,  on  the  part  of  any  child  sent  to  the 
school  imder  an  order  of  detention,  be  deemed  to  be  an  offence  against 
the  aforesaid  order  in  council  within  the  meaning  of  section  28  thereof. 

31.  These  rules  and  regulations  shall  not  be  added  to,  repealed  or 
altered  in  whole  or  in  part  except  with  the  consent  of  the  secretary  of 
state,  and  at  a  meeting  of  the  school  board  convened  by  a  notice  stating 
such  business,  and  sent  in  accordance  with  the  regulations  for  the  time 
being  in  force  for  the  transaction  and  management  of  the  business  of 
the  board ;  but  the  school  board,  or,  with  their  authority,  the  managers, 
may  from  time  to  time  lay  down  special  rules  for  regulating  any  matter 
not  provided  for  in  these  rules,  provided  that  such  special  rules  shall  not 
be  in  any  way  inconsistent  with  these  rules,  and  shall  be  recorded  in  a 
book  to  be  submitted  to  the  inspector  for  approval  on  the  occasion  of  his 
annual  or  other  visits.  W.  Inglis, 

H.M.  Inspector  of  Reformatory  and  Industrial  Schools. 
August  18,  1891. 


292  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 


Certified  Industrial  Schools  (One  for  Boys  and  One  for  Girls). 

Under  the  provisions  of  the  elementary  education  act  (1876),  the  duty 
is  thrown  upon  the  school  board  of  putting  into  force  the  provisions  of 
the  industrial  schools  act  (1866)  and  its  amending  acts.  In  addition  to 
the  services  which  can  be  rendered  in  this  respect  by  their  ordinary 
visiting  staff,  the  board  have,  in  conjunction  with  the  Society  for  the 
Repression  of  Immorality,  appointed  two  officers  whose  whole  time  is 
almost  exclusively  devoted  to  this  work  ;  while  a  third  officer  has  been 
set  apart  for  the  investigation  of  the  cases  of  all  children  brought  by 
other  agencies  before  the  magistrates,  under  the  terms  of  the  industrial 
schools  acts,  —  for  a  large  number  of  cases  is  brought  before  the  mag- 
istrates by  the  police,  or  by  the  officers  of  the  Society  for  the  Prevention 
of  Cruelty  to  Children,  and  a  considerable  number,  principally  orphans, 
through  the  actions  of  private  individuals. 

On  the  29th  of  September,  1888,  there  were  in  certified  industrial 
schools  671  Liverpool  children,  viz.,  429  boys  and  242  girls.  Through 
the  combined  action  of  the  agencies  before  mentioned,  and  of  the  board's 
own  officers,  769  children,  viz.,  662  boys  and  207  girls,  have  been  brought 
before  the  magistrates  during  the  past  three  years,  under  the  provisions 
of  the  industrial  schools  acts  ;  and  375,  viz.,  220  boys  and  155  girls,  com- 
mitted. Of  this  number,  141  were  committed  for  frequenting  the  com- 
pany of  prostitutes,  69  for  begging,  67  for  stealing  and  27  for  vagrancy, 
while  71  (mostly  orphans)  were  committed  as  "  destitute."  In  addition 
to  these  children,  167,  viz.,  103  boys  and  64  girls,  were,  during  the  same 
period,  committed  to  industrial  schools  under  the  elementary  education 
act  of  1876. 

Since  the  29th  of  September,  1888,  278  boys  and  149  girls  have  been 
discharged,  and  of  this  number  105  boys  and  54  girls  were  licensed 
before  the  completion  of  their  terms  of  detention.  On  the  29th  of  Sep- 
tember, 1891,  there  were  786  Liverpool  children,  viz.,  474  boys  and  312 
girls,  in  residence  at  these  schools. 


Industrial  Schools  Act,  1891. — Emigration. 

Towards  the  close  of  last  session  a  short  but  very  important  act  was 
passed  by  Parliament,  empowering  the  managers  of  industrial  schools, 
with  the  consent  of  the  children  themselves  and  of  the  secretary  of  state, 
to  dispose,  by  way  of  emigration,  of  children  committed  to  those  schools  ; 
towards  the  cost  of  which  method  of  disposition  school  boards  are,  under 
the  general  powers  conferred  on  them  by  section  27  of  the  elementary 
education  act  (1870),  enabled  to  make  contribution.  With  regard  to  the 
provisions  of  the  new  act,  —  which  are  in  accordance  with  representa- 
tions made,  on  more  than  one  occasion,  by  the  present  board  and  by  their 
predecessors  in  office,  —  the  board  have  been  in  communication  with  the 
managers  of  the  various  industrial  schools  to  which  Liverpool  children 
have  been  committed,  but  as  yet  no  definite  scheme  for  exercising  the 
new  powers  has  been  prepared. 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  293 


Work  of  Compulsion. 

The  visiting  staff  employed  by  the  board  at  the  present  time  consists 
ofthirtj'-five  male  and  twenty-one  female  permanent,  and  eleven  male 
and  one  female  temporary,  visitors,  acting  under  the  direction  of  a  super- 
intendent, assisted  by  four  inspectors.  Ihe  permanent  staff  shows  an 
increase  of  one  male  visitor  upon  the  corresponding  numbers  employed 
at  the  close  of  the  last  board. 

This  staff  is  divided  into  two  main  parts :  district  visitors,  of  whom 
there  are  sixteen,  and  school  visitors,  of  whom  there  are  forty-six,  the 
remaining  six  visitors  being  detailed  for  special  work,  —  two  in  con- 
nection with  the  enforcement  of  the  industrial  schools  acts,  two  with 
prosecutions  under  the  education  acts,  one  with  the  payment  of  school 
fees  and  one  acting  as  assistant  inspector. 

The  duty  of  the  district  visitors  is  to  secure  that  all  children  of  school 
age  are  enrolled  at  some  school,  and  for  this  i^urpose  :  — 

(a)  To  keep,  as  far  as  possible,  a  correct  register  of  all  the  families 
in  their  respective  districts  ; 

(b)  To  visit,  and,  where  necessary,  to  take  proceedings  in  respect  of 
children  found  to  be  not  attending  school ;  and 

(c)  To  keep  a  record  of  children  approaching  five  years  of  age,  and 
to  see  that  they  go  to  school  on  attaining  that  age. 

The  register  is  kept  up  by  means  of  a  house-to-house  visitation,  which 
is  conducted  continuously  throughout  the  year,  and  a  complete  round  of 
which  is  made  in  about  three  months. 

The  duty  of  the  school  visitors  is  :  — 

(«)  To  secure  the  regular  attendance  of  children  whose  names  are  on 
the  rolls  of  schools  ; 

(b)  To  trace,  as  far  as  possible,  all  children  who  leave  the  schools 
xinder  their  charge  ;  and 

(c)  To  notify  to  the  district  visitors  all  changes  of  residence  coming 
under  their  notice. 

Until  August,  1889,  the  uniform  practice  was  for  the  school  visitors  to 
be  supplied  with  particulars  with  regard  to  the  attendance  of  children 
once  each  fortnight,  with  a  view  to  their  visiting  those  who  were  irregu- 
lar ;  and  this  practice  still  obtains  in  respect  to  the  great  majority  of  the 
schools  of  the  town.  In  that  month,  however,  ten  temporary  visitors, 
since  increased  to  twelve,  were  appointed,  to  enable  the  experiment  to 
be  tried  of  obtaining  the  information  and  visiting  the  irregular  children 
weekly,  in  connection  with  some  thirtj^-six  schools  situated  in  localities 
in  which  the  attendance  was  least  satisfactory.  The  experiment  was 
originally  made  for  one  year,  with  the  result  that  in  the  schools  selected 
the  average  attendance  rose  from  a  little  over  seventy-six  per  cent,  to 
very  nearly  seventy-eight  per  cent.  It  was  accordingly  decided  to  con- 
tinue the  experiment,  first,  for  a  further  six  months,  and  subsequently 
for  an  additional  period  of  twelve  months,  not  yet  expired. 

In  the  discharge  of  the  important  and  responsible  duties  devolving 
upon  them  in  connection  with  the  exercise  of  their  compulsory  powers, 
the  board  continue  to  receive  most  valuable  assistance  from  a  consider- 


294  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

able  number  of  ladies  and  gentlemen  not  members  of  the  board,  who 
have  brought  to  the  discharge  of  the  duties  entrusted  to  them  an  amount 
of  tact,  patience  and  devotion  for  which  the  board  cannot  express  too 
highly  their  appreciation. 


Domestic  Economy  as  a  Factor  in  Public  Education.* 
The  public  school  of  the  American  Commonwealth  is  a  some- 
what unique  development  in  the  educational  institutions  of  the 
human  race.  Founded  for  all  the  children  of  the  community,  sup- 
ported by  the  public  funds  in  order  to  secure  a  constant  succession 
of  good  citizens,  that  the  State  might  be  sure  of  being  sustained, 
the  school  taught  those  subjects  which  were  thought  to  best  pre- 
pare for  citizenship,  the  schoolmaster  was  to  supplement,  not  sup- 
plant, home  training.  With  this  common  aim,  the  children  of 
those  who  ploughed  in  the  fields  were  sent  to  sit  at  the  same  desk 
as  the  children  of  those  who  were  the  intellectual  leaders  of  the 
community.  The  equality  of  mind  thus  recognized  was  typical 
of  the  spirit  of  the  early  Commonwealth.  At  a  time  when  every 
man  could  load  a  gun,  build  a  log  house  or  a  palisade,  and  every 
woman  could  spin  and  weave  the  cloth  from  which  she  fashioned 
the  garments  of  her  family,  there  was  little  need  of  manual  train- 
ing or  domestic  economy.  It  was  the  highest  ambition  to  have  the 
children  furnished  with  the  intellectual  weapons  which  would  en- 
able them  to  take,  in  due  time,  a  leading  place  in  the  community. 
Thus  the  public  school  was  a  factor,  next  to  the  "meeting,"  ia 
the  elevation  of  the  people.  Grown  men  and  women  used  the  few 
weeks  of  winter,  when  work  was  less  pressing,  for  an  intellectual 
advancement  which  was  always  recognized  as  fitting  them  for  pub- 
lic duties,  giving  to  them  better  language  for  the  town  meetings, 
more  skill  in  debate,  a  reputation  for  quickness  at  figures.  This 
was  the  condition  of  affairs  only  forty  years  ago,  in  the  home  of 
the  public  school,  the  Commonwealth  of  Massachusetts.  But  the 
first  act  of  the  general  court  in  1642  not  only  enjoined  upon  the 
municipal  authorities  the  duty  of  seeing  that  every  child  was 
educated  so  as  to  read  and  write,  but  also  that  "  all  parents  and 
masters  do  bring  up  their  children  and  apprentices  in  some  honest, 
lawful  calling,  labor  or  employment,  either  in  husbandry  or  some 
other  trade  profitable  for  themselves  and  the  Commonwealth."  As 
Horace  Mann  so  well  stated  the  bearing  of  this  early  law  :  "  Thus 
were  recognized  and  embodied  in  a  public   statute   the   highest 


*  By  Mrs.  Ellen  H.  Richards,  Instructor  in  Sanitary  Chemistry,  Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Technology. 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION.  295 

principles  of  political  economy  and  of  social  well-being,  —  the 
universal  education  of  children  and  the  prevention  of  drones  or 
non-producers  among  men." 

The  aim  of  education  is  now  what  it  was  then,  to  make  good 
citizens,  and  those  subjects  which  will  best  conduce  to  this  end 
should  be  taught  in  the  public  school. 

Times  change  and  methods  must  change  with  circumstances. 
People  no  longer  travel  by  stage  coach ;  why  should  children  be 
taught  in  the  school  just  what  their  stage-coach-travelling  grand- 
fathers were  taught?  The  citizens  of  the  future  are  now  in  the 
schools.  They  are  in  just  that  stage  of  development  in  which 
they  can  most  readily  imbibe  higher  ideals  of  life  and  be  in- 
fluenced to  better  ways  of  living :  shall  the  best  thought  of  the 
time  be  withheld  from  them,  for  fear  that  they  shall  know  more 
than  their  fathers  or  that  they  shall  become  too  revolutionary  in 
their  homes  ? 

In  no  branch  of  knowledge  has  there  been  greater  advance  in 
the  last  fifty  years  than  in  that  of  public  health.  In  no  depart- 
ment of  science  can  so  much  be  accomplished  for  the  general  good 
with  so  little  expenditure  as  in  teaching  the  elements  of  sanitary 
science. 

It  is  no  longer  considered  as  necessary  for  a  child  to  have 
measles  and  scarlet-fever  as  to  cut  its  teeth.  It  is  no  longer  con- 
sidered an  essential  part  of  life  to  have  at  least  twenty  or  thirty 
days  of  illness  in  the  year ;  but  the  community  is  beginning  to 
learn  that  health  and  happiness  are  within  reach  of  all  who  know 
and  obey  the  laws  of  right  living.  Health  and  happiness  mean 
competence  and  peace  in  the  community.  Good  housekeeping  and 
good  cooking  have  the  greatest  influence  on  these  factors  in  a 
nation's  prosperity. 

The  necessity  of  teaching  something  of  sanitary  law  is  recog- 
nized in  the  wide-spread  endeavor  to  introduce  lessons  on  hygiene 
and  temperance  into  public  schools.  But  the  attempt  to  teach 
topics  insulated  from  their  proper  connections  is  oftentimes  not 
only  futile  but  disastrous.  In  these  lessons  harm  instead  of  good 
not  infrequently  results,  from  ignorance  of  the  real  bearing  of 
science  as  well  as  from  over-zealous  partisanship.  Hygiene  and 
temperance  with  a  good  ground  connection  in  a  course  in  domes- 
tic economy  may  safely  receive  the  shock  given  by  the  most  en- 
thusiastic teacher. 

The  elementary  science  lessons  now  given  in  so  many  schools 
form  an  admirable  and  sufficient  ground  work  for  the  consideration 
of  the  effect  of  foul  air  and  dust  on  health. 

The  present  plea  is  for  a  connected  and  systematic  course  in 


296  MANUAL   TRAINING  AND 

general  science,  which  should  be  given  to  both  boys  and  girls,  as 
a  preparation  for  the  practice  work  or  manual  training  which  is 
now  so  generally  conceded  to  be  an  essential  concomitant  of  an 
education,  as  is  shown  by  the  establishment  of  schools  where  boys 
may  gain  control  of  all  their  faculties  and  thus  become  well- 
balanced  men.  It  is  quite  time  to  consider  what  can  best  effect 
the  same  result  in  the  same  degree  for  girls. 

The  subject  chosen  must  be  broadly  educational,  and  at  the 
same  time  capable  of  manual  demonstration.  It  must  be  uni- 
versally applicable  to  all  conditions  of  life.  The  writer  has  no 
hesitation  in  saying  that  the  science  of  domestic  economy  rightly 
interpreted  fulfils  all  of  these  conditions.  And  here,  as  in  all 
manual  training,  the  science,  or  educational  element,  should  be 
distinguished  from  the  art. 

While  sympathizing  heartily  in  the  work  of  the  cooking  schools 
so  successfully  established,  the  writer  sees  the  same  element  of 
danger  lest  they  should  be  considered  as  an  end  instead  of  a 
means,  as  has  been  the  case  in  the  schools  of  carpentry.  In  a 
word,  they  should  "  not  teach  how  to  make  a  living,  but  how  to 
live."  To  do  this  effectually  the  foundation  should  be  broadened  ; 
just  as  the  course  in  carpentry  has  developed  into  the  manual  train- 
ing school,  so  should  the  eminently  successful  cooking  school  de- 
velop into  a  course  in  domestic  economy.  All  the  work  of  the 
school  should  be  in  harmony,  and  the  cooking  should  no  longer 
be  considered  an  outside  affair,  an  interloper,  a  crowder-out  of 
more  important  studies,  but  all  the  teachers  should  co-operate  to 
make  most  effective  the  practical  lessons. 

The  topics  required  are  all  taught  in  some  fashion  in  most 
schools,  so  that  this  plea  is  not  for  the  introduction  of  new  sub- 
ject-matter, but  for  the  simplifying  and  correlation  of  what  is  now 
attempted,  so  that  the  result  may  be  a  valuable  educational  devel- 
opment mentally  and  morally,  instead  of  a  useless  hodge-podge  of 
isolated  facts,  with  no  effect  in  the  after  lives  of  the  pupils. 

The  attempt  to  introduce  new  subjects  into  an  existing  curricu- 
lum is  often  like  setting  up  with  great  labor  disconnected  posts 
which  enclose  nothing  and  support  nothing,  instead  of  building 
upon  a  foundation  a  complete  and  useful  structure.  In  education 
each  step  should  follow  closely  upon  the  previous  one,  and  the  con- 
nection between  all  the  branches  of  a  subject  should  be  clearly 
apparent  to  the  pupil's  mind. 

What,  then,  is  a  feasible  plan  for  a  course  in  domestic  economy 
applicable  to  public  school  work  ?  The  teacher  must  bear  in  mind 
that  the  word  economy  as  here  used  is  not  synonymous  with  par- 
simony.    Better  living,   better  health   in   consequence  of    better 


INDUSTEIAL    EDUCATION^.  297 

cooking,  mean  economy  to  the  State  in  the  general  capacity  of  its 
citizens  ;  brain  workers  quite  as  much  as  day  laborers. 

The  lessons  in  domestic  economy  should  extend  over  four  years, 
from  tlie  ages  of  ten  to  fourteen  or  from  twelve  to  sixteen.  The 
writer  prefers  the  younger  limit :  — 

First  Year.  — Observations  on  the  growth  of  plants  and  animals, 
in  the  school-room ;  sewing  and  knitting  ;  two  hours  a  weelc  of 
elementary  science  lessons  ;  the  study  of  oxygen,  hydrogen  and 
carbon,  and  their  relation  to  the  life  of  plants  and  animals. 

Second  Year.  —  Continued  observation  of  plants  and  animals; 
collection  of  seeds  and  fibres  and  woods  in  connection  with  geo- 
graphical study  ;  sewing,  cutting  and  fitting  ;  two  hours  a  week  of 
elementary  science  lessons  ;  simple  mechanism ;  oxygen  and  car- 
bon, in  their  relation  to  fire  and  heat ;  elementary  physiology. 

Third  Year.  —  Completion  of  the  museum  of  materials  used  in 
the  house,  with  reading  lessons  and  geographical  classification  ; 
one  hour  a  week  of  elementary  science,  composition  of  food,  starch, 
sugar,  etc.  ;  two  hours  a  week  in  the  school  kitchen  ;  practical  les- 
sons in  the  care  of  tlie  fire  and  the  cleaning  and  cooking  of  natural 
products,  seeds,  roots  and  fruits  ;  simple  applications  of  the  laws 
of  heat  which  have  been  learned  before.  Especial  attention  is  to 
be  given  at  this  point  to  cleanliness,  to  orderly  and  systematic 
arrangement.  One  hour  a  week  at  this  point  should  be  given  les- 
sons on  personal  hygiene,  temperance  in  eating  as  well  as  in 
drinking. 

Fourth  Year.  —  Collection  of  materials  used  in  cleaning  and 
repairing  ;  soaps  ;  substances  used  in  taking  out  spots  and  stains  ; 
sewing  materials  ;  examples  of  skilled  repairing ;  one  hour  a  week 
of  science  lessons,  on  the  composition  and  cost  of  food  materials 
and  the  preparation  of  dietaries  for  different  seasons  of  the  year  ; 
two  hours  a  week  in  the  school  kitchen,  beginning  with  the  natural 
products  prepared  by  the  younger  class  ;  the  lessons  should  be 
devoted  to  combining  them  into  the  more  complicated  dishes  ;  the 
cooking  of  meats,  preparation  of  soups  and  stews,  the  making  of 
bread  and  breakfast  and  tea  cakes  ;  made-over  dishes  ;  suitable 
combination,  seasonable  marketing  with  appetizing  serving,  should 
follow  ;  one  hour  a  week,  family  hygiene  and  the  care  of  the  house. 

The  course  here  outlined  will  in  all  require  only  one-fifth  of  the 
school  time,  and  surely  it  is  of  one-fifth  the  value  of  the  sum  total 
of  education. 

The  plan  proposed  is  no  visionary  one  ;  but,  lest  some  reader 
should  still  be  skeptical  about  the  desirability  of  the  manual  or 
practice  work  and  the  introduction  of  so  much  science  into  the 
school  kitchen,  we  will  consider  the  question  more  in  detail. 


298  MANUAL    TRAININa   AND 

The  use  of  tools  is  acknowledged  to  be  almost  a  distinguishing 
attribute  of  civilized  man,  that  thing  which  distinguishes  him  from 
the  savage ;  and  the  advocates  of  manual  training  often  say  that 
there  is  no  reason  why  girls  should  not  use  tools  as  well  as  boys  ; 
but  as  a  rule  the  needle  is  still  held  to  be  the  tool  of  the  woman, 
as  it  was  in  the  day  of  bead  ornamentation  and  tapestry  working. 
The  use  of  tools  is  also  recommended,  because  of  its  value  in 
developing  the  muscles,  in  making  a  part  of  physical  training. 

Will  any  one  venture  to  recommend  the  position  of  the  seam- 
stress at  her  work  as  hygienic  ?  as  calculated  to  develop  all  parts 
of  the  body?  as  tending  to  an  erect  carriage  or  a  firm  step? 
However  valuable  the  use  of  the  needle  may  be  as  an  art,  it  can- 
not claim  to  be  ranked  very  high  as  a  factor  in  education. 

The  preparation  for  needle-work,  the  science  of  cutting  and 
fitting,  is  properly  a  branch  of  drawing  and  geometrical  applica- 
tion, and  as  such  is  rightly  considered  within  the  scope  of  the 
school ;  but  even  that  is  of  limited  value  in  increasing  physical 
and  mental  growth. 

The  workshop,  as  arranged  in  the  best  schools  for  manual  train- 
ing, leaves  little  to  be  desired  in  the  way  of  the  best  exercise  for 
all  the  muscles  ;  watch  a  boy  at  the  bench,  and  see  how  in  the 
progress  of  his  work  every  muscle  from  head  to  foot  is  called  into 
play,  and  with  this  advantage  over  the  gymnasium,  that  it  is  all 
unconsciously  done,  the  boy's  mind  being  on  his  work.  The  mental 
stimulus  which  the  boy  receives  from  the  workshop  has  been 
abundantly  proven. 

What  can  take  the  place  of  the  workshop  in  the  education  of 
girls  ?  Educators  are  everywhere  clamoring  for  physical  education 
for  girls  as  a  necessity  ;  and  yet  no  general  effort  has  been  made 
to  give  the  girls  a  chance  at  the  work  bench,  although  some 
schools  have  done  so.  It  is  an  additional  expense,  for  one  thing, 
and  since,  after  all,  the  school  is  utilitarian  to  a  certain  extent, 
that  subject  which  is  useful  as  well  as  educational  will  find  a 
readier  foothold. 

But  along  with  the  use  of  tools  in  the  development  of  civilized 
man  came  another  advance,  as  marked,  and  not  less  important, 
I.  e.,  the  cooking  of  food.  In  all  the  march  of  civilization  the 
two  have  gone  hand  in  hand.  The  savage  woman  built  the  house 
as  well  as  cooked  the  food.  Man  has  taken  the  building  off  her 
hands,  but  the  cooking  still  remains  her  province.  What  training 
does  she  receive  for  this  most  important  office,  an  office  not  less 
important  to  the  welfare  of  the  community  than  the  use  of  tools  ? 

Can  cooking,  the  use  of  kitchen  tools,  be  placed  on  a  level  with 
the  use  of  workshop  tools,  as  a  means  of  mental  and  physical 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION.  299 

training  ?  Let  the  skeptic  go  into  one  of  the  school  kitchens  and 
see  the  girls  standing  at  their  benches,  with  the  measuring  cup  and 
scales,  instead  of  a  foot  rule,  with  the  moulding  board  and  rolling 
pin  instead  of  the  plane,  the  dough  for  a  loaf  of  bread  instead  of 
a  piece  of  pine  board,  their  hands  the  most  effective  tool  of  all. 
Let  him  watch  their  graceful,  unstudied  motions,  as  they  tidy  up 
the  desk  while  the  prepared  dish  is  cooking ;  let  him  note  their 
bright  faces  as  the  soup  is  tasted,  and  then  tell  whether  there  is 
no  value  in  the  work  as  a  physical  development  and  a  mental 
exercise  in  judgment,  exactness  and  neatness,  if  the  "executive 
faculty,  the  most  important  of  all  our  powers  in  the  practical  work 
of  life,"  is  not  called  into  play  by  the  bringing  of  the  preparation 
of  materials  and  cooking  within  the  specified  time  ? 

As,  in  the  case  of  the  workshop,  after  the  fundamental  principles 
are  learned,  the  pupil  has  the  satisfaction  of  making  a  table  or  a 
chest  of  drawers,  in  order  that  he  may  more  clearly  see  the  bear- 
ing of  each  separate  process,  so  the  girl  prepares  a  set  of  dishes, 
as  a  tangible  evidence  that  she  has  understood  the  principles 
involved,  not  merely  for  the  sake  of  making  the  dish. 

Consider  for  a  moment  the  scientific  principles  which  are  called 
into  play  in  the  preparation  of  so  simple  a  dish  as  a  steamed 
pudding.  First  a  fire  is  built.  The  kindling  point  of  coal  is  at 
so  high  a  temperature  that  the  heat  of  a  match  is  not  sufficient  to 
ignite  it,  therefore  some  wood  is  first  set  on  fire  ;  but  this  cannot 
be  lighted  by  the  heat  of  a  match  unless  it  is  in  shavings  or  fine 
splinters,  which  will  in  their  turn  give  heat  enough  to  set  on  fire 
the  larger  pieces,  and  this  will  heat  the  coal  so  that  it  will  burn. 
None  of  these  substances  will  burn  unless  they  have  sufficient 
oxygen  to  combine  with  the  carbon  and  hydrogen  which  they  con- 
tain. If  they  do  not  burn  there  will  be  no  heat,  hence  the  amount 
of  air  which  passes  through  the  wood  and  coal  must  be  regulated 
by  the  drafts  of  the  receptacle  in  which  the  combustion  is  going 
on,  i.  e.,  the  stove.  Too  much  air  will  carry  the  heat  produced 
by  the  union  of  the  oxygen  and  carbon  and  hydrogen  up  the 
chimney.  After  a  fire  is  well  started,  steam  to  cook  the  pudding 
is  required.  A  pan  of  water  is  set  over  the  fire,  and  by  means  of 
the  conducting  power  of  the  metal  of  which  the  pan  is  made  the 
water  is  heated.  First  little  bubbles  of  air  are  so  expanded  by 
the  heat  as  to  rise  to  the  surface  and  escape  ;  then  some  of  the 
water  nearest  the  metal  is  so  heated  that  it  becomes  gaseous  and 
rises  in  large  bubbles  to  the  top,  where  the  bubbles  are  cooled  to 
water  again,  and  seen  to  disappear.  Soon,  however,  the  top 
becomes  heated  by  these  bubbles  of  steam  so  that  they  escape  as 
steam,  carrying  with  them  the  heat  which  was  required  to  form 


300  MANUAL    TRAINING  AND 

them  ;  this  heat  is  given  up  to  any  cooler  substance  with  which 
the  steam  comes  in  contact,  and  so  it  becomes  heated.  While  the 
water  is  coming  to  this  temperature,  the  dough  is  to  be  prepared. 
Wheat  flour  is  used,  because  it  contains  all  the  substances  which 
are  needed  for  the  nutrition  of  the  human  body.  Starch  and  some 
fat  to  be  combined  with  oxygen  in  the  tissues  to  furnish  the  heat 
needed  to  keep  the  body  from  ten  to  one  hundred  degrees  warmer 
than  the  outside  air,  according  to  the  season,  and  to  furnish  some 
of  the  tissues  with  food  which  they  need.  Flour  also  contains 
gluten  and  some  other  nitrogenous  substances,  which  not  only 
enable  the  cakes  made  from  flour  to  become  light,  i.  e.,  porous, 
because  of  its  glutinous  character,  but  also  to  furnish  nitrogenous 
material  for  the  repair  of  the  muscular  tissues,  and  probably  to 
fulfil  some  other  as  yet  unknown  office  in  the  economy  of  the 
human  body. 

The  flour  being  good  for  food  in  itself  must  be  made  digestible 
and  palatable,  the  three  requisites  in  any  food.  Flour  being  dry 
must  be  moistened,  therefore  water  is  added  in  just  such  quantity 
as  will  be  taken  up  by  the  starch  grains  and  swell  them  but  not 
allow  them  to  become  pasty.  But  the  saliva  must  penetrate 
every  particle  of  starch  with  its  change-producing  ferment,  and, 
while  savage  man  ate  parched  grain,  chewing  it  a  long  time, 
civilized  man  prefers  a  quicker  method,  and  so  makes  the  mass  of 
cooked  flour  porous  with  the  aid  of  carbonic  acid  gas  introduced 
either  by  the  use  of  a  ferment  yeast,  or  more  quickly  by  a  chemical 
preparation  of  baking  powder.  When  the  batter  is  heated  all 
through  to  the  boiling  point  of  water,  212°  F.,  the  gluten  is 
stiffened  so  that  the  mass  is  elastic,  the  starch  has  taken  up  the 
water  and  becomes  dry.  The  pudding  has  now  to  be  taken  out 
and  served  with  some  flavored  sauce. 

The  school  girl  who  has  had  the  elements  of  chemistry  and 
physics,  which  are  often  taught  as  abstract  subjects,  summed  up 
and  applied  to  the  making  of  a  simple  dish,  has  had  her  mind 
awakened  to  the  relations  and  interdependence  of  things,  as  no 
other  training  now  given  can  awaken  it. 

The  objector  may  say  that  a  pudding  made  by  practised  hands 
is  just  as  good  as  one  made  by  the  hands  which  are  actuated  by 
all  this  brain  knowledge.  It  is  quite  true  ;  but  the  advocates  of 
manual  training  as  a  factor  in  education  turn  their  eyes  first 
of  all,  and  chiefly,  to  the  effect  on  the  child  (not  to  the  results  as 
shown  in  the  work  accomplished,  for  the  sake  of  results  only) 
for  the  proof  that  the  training  has  been  successful  in  that  which 
it  aimed  to  accomplish,  namely,  a  result  on  the  mind  of  the 
child. 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  301 

Often  the  most  effective  lessons  are  those  which  are  indirectly 
learned.  Thus  not  the  least  of  the  many  values  of  the  training 
in  the  cooking  school  is  the  indirect  one  of  neatness,  cleanliness 
and  promptness. 

This  effect  cannot  be  better  expressed  than  it  has  been  by  a 
master  in  science.  "A  fact  discovered  by  a  child  for  himself 
through  his  own  direct  observation  becomes  a  part  of  his  being, 
and  is  infinitely  more  to  him  than  the  same  fact  learned  by  heresay 
or  acquired  from  a  lesson  book.  The  idea  of  discovery  should  be 
encouraged  in  every  way  among  children.  We  should  remember 
that  to  them  the  whole  of  nature  is  an  unknown  world,  into  which 
their  young  souls,  timidly  or  adventurously,  as  the  case  may  be, 
advance.  If  we  can  help  them  to  push  foi'ward  boldly  and  see 
things  for  themselves,  we  do  them  an  inestimable  .service,  not  only 
adding  to  the  joy  of  their  childhood,  but  kindling  for  them  a  light 
that  will  illumine  them  all  their  future  life."  * 

The  training  has  been  so  far  tried  in  two  different  places  in  the 
curriculum,  in  the  grammar  school  and  in  the  high  school.  At 
present  I  am  unhesitatingly  in  favor  of  beginning  at  the  earlier 
date.  The  age  of  ten  or  twelve  is  my  own  preference,  for  several 
reasons : — 

First. — The  child  of  ten  or  twelve  is  still  observant,  even  if  she 
has  been  so  unfortunate  as  to  miss  the  early  training  of  the  kinder- 
garten. She  is  still  retentive  in  memory,  without  effort,  especially 
in  regard  to  things  which  she  sees  and  handles  herself. 

Second.  —  The  experience  so  far  gained  has  shown  that,  as  a 
rule,  the  younger  children  (twelve  to  fourteen  years  of  age)  very 
readily  appreciate  and  very  deftly  perform  the  housekeeping  part 
of  the  lesson.  They  wash  the  dishes  and  put  them  in  place  with 
a  zest  which  is  wanting  in  the  case  of  the  older  girls. 

Third.  —  At  twelve  she  needs  pleasant  bodily  occupation,  rather 
than  prolonged  mental  work. 

Fourth.  —  She  needs  a  mental  distraction,  an  interest  outside 
herself,  an  interest  in  things  and  an  illustration  of  the  power  of 
mind  over  matter  ;  a  control  of  the  forces  of  nature.  An  inquiry 
into  the  reasons  of  things  is  of  great  benefit  to  the  growing  girl. 
At  an  age  when  dolls  begin  to  be  thrown  aside,  let  the  child  begin ' 
her  preparation  for  womanhood  by  practising  that  most  fascinating 
of  all  rainy-day  plays,  playing  cook,  under  the  eyes  of  the  judi- 
cious teacher. 

The  work  to  be  laid  out  in  the  school  kitchen  corresponds  very 
well  with  the  course  in  the  workshop. 

*"The  Teaching  of  Geography,"  Archibald  Geikie,  page  8. 


302  MAI^UAL    TRAINING   AND 

First  the  preparation  aud  tlie  clearing  away,  tlie  care  of  the  fire, 
the  tidy  ways  of  the  kitchen,  in  short,  the  housekeeping  part. 
Then  the  construction  of  single  parts,  simple  boiling,  broiling  and 
baking.  Finally  the  preparation  of  a  whole  and  its  orderly 
arrangement,  mixing,  flavoring  and  combining  of  dishes.  Whether 
these  three  parts  shall  be  all  combined  into  one  course,  or  whether 
there  shall  be  two  or  three  separate  courses  extending  over  as 
many  years  at  less  frequent  intervals,  depends  upon  circum- 
stances. For  the  elementary  instruction  in  the  grammar  school  two 
years  at  least  are  needed  for  the  best  development  of  the  science. 
It  would  then  seem  wiser  to  follow  the  natural  order,  and  arrange 
for  the  younger  children  to  take  that  most  essential  part  of  the  les- 
sons, the  housekeeping  part,  either  as  a  morning  lesson,  preparing 
the  materials  for  the  afternoon  class  to  combine  into  dishes,  or  a 
certain  number  of  them  to  serve  at  the  same  time  that  the  other 
lesson  is  taking  place. 

The  first  plan  would  seem  to  be  preferable,  since  all  confusion 
should  be  avoided  and  all  distraction  of  the  mind  from  the  work  in 
hand.  Also  there  should  always  be  time  allowed  for  the  full  per- 
formance of  the  work,  for,  as  in  all  science  teaching,  the  child 
should  never  be  told  what  is  to  happen.  She  should  see  for  her- 
self what  will  take  place  under  given  conditions. 

When,  however,  one  teacher  has  to  oversee  two  sets  of  workers, 
a  loss  of  power  is  unavoidable.  Two  teachers,  one  for  each  class 
of  workers,  would  of  course  solve  the  difficulty.  In  any  case  care 
must  be  taken  not  to  crowd  too  much  into  a  single  lesson,  and 
especial  care  must  be  taken  to  have  each  lesson  a  preparation  for 
the  next,  that  there  may  be  a  clear  and  orderly  progression  from 
beginning  to  end.  There  is  a  limit  to  the  absorbing  powers  of  a 
child's  mind. 

If,  however,  the  lessons  on  domestic  economy  are  delayed  until 
the  pupils  are  ill  the  high  school,  the  first  endeavor  must  be  to 
bring  into  line  whatever  of  science  training  they  have  had  ;  their 
interest  must  be  awakened  in  the  applications  of  the  laws  they 
have  learned  in  their  school  laboratories.  For  them  the  school 
kitchen  is  only  another  kind  of  chemical  laboratory.  They  should 
be  already  familiar  with  the  use  of  the  thermometer  and  with  the 
properties  of  starch  and  sugar,  so  that  they  may  at  once  begin  the 
preparation  of  food  aud  the  study  of  its  composition.  In  case 
of  a  possibility  of  a  three-years  course  in  the  high  school,  the 
third  year  should  give  an  opportunity  for  the  class  to  combine  the 
foods  pi'epared  by  the  other  classes  into  a  suitable  dinner,  with  the 
refinements  of  service,  and  with  careful  calculations  as  to  cost  of 
materials  and  of  preparation. 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION.  303 

So  little  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  science  of  cooking,  there 
is  a  wide  field  here  for  original  work. 

In  all  this  discussion  the  reader  will  bear  in  mind  that  the  stand- 
point is  that  of  the  public  school,  and  the  aim  is  an  educational 
one  throughout,  just  as  much  as  if  the  topic  under  consideration 
were  the  teaching  of  arithmetic  or  geometry.  It  is  the  develop- 
ment of  the  child  iu  character,  in  mental  ability,  in  more  strength 
by  means  of  the  training  advocated.  It  is  not  the  production  of  a 
skilled  class  of  workers  in  one  line. 

This  distinction  should  be  borne  in  mind  constantly,  because 
there  are  trade  schools  in  cookery,  just  as  there  are  trade  schools 
in  carpentry  and  metal  working.  Both  are  admirable  for  certain 
purposes,  such  as  giving  free  instruction  to  the  children  of  the 
poor,  or  affording  an  opportunity  to  those  who  wish  to  make  a 
better  living,  or  offering  advantages  to  grown  people  to  improve 
their  condition,  or  opportunities  to  acquire  useful  knowledge. 

It  has  been  very  difficult  to  prevent  the  two  forces  of  philan- 
thropy and  education  from  collision  over  this  matter  ;  and,  at  the 
risk  of  being  tedious,  the  writer  must  emphasize  the  distinction 
again  as  a  reason  for  the  comprehensiveness  of  the  course  on 
domestic  economy,  which  at  first  sight  may  seem  to  be  absurdly 
extended  so  as  to  cover  all  the  sciences.  But  where  do  all  the 
sciences  meet,  if  not  in  the  home,  the  centre  of  all  activity,  the 
pivot  about  which  revolve  comfort,  health  and  happiness,  or 
sickness,  poverty  and  heartache?  Upon  the  education  of  the 
American  school  girl  depends  the  future  of  the  American  home. 

The  science  of  home  life  should  keep  pace  with  the  improvements 
in  outside  affairs.  At  a  time  when  all  the  food  products  of  the 
world  may  be  found  in  the  markets  of  any  city,  and  when  electric 
lighting  and  steam  heating  are  common  in  dwellings,  the  house- 
keeper needs  a  correspondingly  broadened  education. 

At  present  it  will  be  difficult  to  find  teachers  fully  equipped  for 
carrying  out  the  ideal  course  in  domestic  economy,  but  the  demand 
will  bring  the  supply.  Colleges  and  scientific  scliools  are  waking 
np  to  the  needs  of  the  times,  and  courses  in  physiology,  hygiene 
and  sanitary  science  are  being  established,  with  reference  to  the 
requirements  of  such  teaching. 

APPENDIX. 
New  Jersey  State  Board  of  Education.* 
Cooking. — Instruction  in  cooking  may  be  begun  in  the  lowest  gram- 
mar grade.     Instruction  in  cooking  should  be  connected  as  much  as 

*  Extract  from  the  report  of  the  special  committee  on  manual  training,  submitted 
Feb.  7,  1889. 


304  MANUAL    TKAIITING   AND 

possible  with  instruction  in  other  subjects.  In  schools  where  natural 
science  is  taught,  a  particularly  close  connection  can  be  established. 

The  instruction  begins  with  the  making  and  care  of  fires  and  the 
chemistry  of  combustion ;  then  proceeds  to  the  principles  and  practice 
of  food  preparation,  by  boiling,  broiling,  stewing,  roasting,  etc.  The 
class-room  work  should  include  talks  on  the  chemistry  of  foods,  the 
relative  nutritive  power  of  various  foods,  and  questions  of  food  economy, 
etc. 

The  instruction  should  be  given  twice  a  week,  in  lessons  an  hour  in 
length,  throughout  the  grammar  grade.  A  room  must  be  set  apart  and 
fitted  up  for  this  instruction.  A  class  of  twenty  can  be  easily  instructed 
at  one  time,  and  the  cost  of  equipment  for  such  a  class  is  about  eighty 
dollars.  The  materials  used  will  cost  on  an  average  one  dollar  per 
lesson. 

Boston,  Mass. 

The  school  committee  having  voted  to  jDcrmit  girls  of  certain  schools 
to  attend  the  schools  of  cookery  established  in  North  Bennet  Street  and 
Tennyson  Street,  provided  that  the  parents  or  guardians  of  the  jDupils 
so  request  in  writing,  it  was  decided  that  such  pupils  should  attend  the 
cookery  schools  on  probation,  and  under  certain  regulations  prescribed 
by  the  committee  on  manual  training  schools.  Among  these  regula- 
tions are  the  following :  — 

These  schools  shall  be  under  the  general  direction  of  the  committee 
on  manual  training  schools  so  far  as  the  attendance  of  classes  from  the 
public  schools  is  concerned. 

The  morning  sessions  of  the  schools  of  cookery  shall  begin  at  a 
quarter-past  nine  o'clock  and  close  at  twelve  o'clock ;  the  afternoon 
sessions  shall  begin  at  two  o'clock  and  close  at  four  o'clock. 

Fifteen  pupils  shall  be  the  standard  number  to  one  class.  The 
classes  will  alternate  morning  and  afternoon  sessions. 

The  discipline  of  the  Boston  School  Kitchen  No.  1  shall  be  under  the 
direction  of  the  principal  of  the  Winthrop  district,  and  the  discipline  of 
the  North  Bennet  Street  School  shall  be  under  the  direction  of  the 
principal  of  the  Hancock  district.  Any  disorderly  conduct  on  the  part 
of  pupils  shall  be  reported  to  the  principals  of  the  schools  from  which 
such  pupils  come. 

The  absence  of  pupils  shall  be  reported  to  the  principals  of  the 
schools  from  which  they  come,  and  shall  be  recorded  as  absences  from 
the  regular  classes  of  the  grammar  schools  to  which  such  jDupils 
belong. 

The  tardiness  of  pupils  shall  be  reported  to  the  principals  of  the 
schools  from  which  they  come. 

Each  principal  shall  send  to  the  teachers  of  the  schools  of  cookery 
class  rolls  containing  the  names,  ages  and  residences  of  the  pupils  in 
each  class  sent  from  his  school. 

Pupils  attending  the  schools  of  cookery  must  have  suflS.cient  intelli- 
gence to  keep  a  recipe  book. 


INDUSTEIAL    EDUCATIOISr.  305 


New  Haven,  Conn.* 

Cooking.  —  When,  one  year  ago,  it  was  suggested  that  the  board  add 
instruction  for  girls  in  domestic  economy,  it  seemed  hardly  possible  that 
a  public  sentiment  would  be  developed  suflS.ciently  strong  to  secure  the 
necessary  action.  But  such  has  been  the  case,  and  Miss  Emma  Poison, 
who  has  taught  classes  the  past  year  with  marked  success  at  the  rooms 
of  the  Young  Women's  Christian  Association,  has  been  secured  as 
instructor.  The  ladies  of  the  above-named  association  having  tendered 
the  use  of  the  rooms  at  a  nominal  rent,  the  board  voted  to  try  the 
experiment  there,  and  appropriated  one  thousand  dollars  for  that  j^ur- 
pose.  Classes  of  girls  will  attend  one-half  day  each  week  from  the 
ten  grammar  schools  in  the  same  manner  as  the  boys  attend  the  manual 
training  school. 

These  several  forms  of  industrial  education  may  all  be  considered  as 
valuable  in  two  ways  :  (1)  for  mental  discipline,  (2)  tor  practical  iitility. 
While  it  might  be  difficult  to  justify  them  for  the  latter  reason,  it  is  the 
prevalent  o^Dinion  that  they  can  be  defended  on  educational  grounds. 
That  wood-working,  sewing  and  cooking  are  of  immense  jsractical 
imiDortance  is  certainly  no  argument  against  their  adoption  as  an 
integral  part  of  a  school  training. 

It  may  be  admitted  that  during  one  period  in  the  history  of  schools  it 
was  permitted  to  teach  anything  but  what  was  immediately  useful. 
That  time  has  passed.  It  is  now  conceded  that  if  the  useful  arts  can  be 
taught  so  systematically  as  to  train  and  discipline  the  highest  jDOwers  of 
mind  and  character,  there  is  no  sound  reason  for  neglecting  them.  It  is 
moreover  agreed  that  the  best  interests  of  human  society  and  the 
welfare  of  the  State  as  related  to  thrift,  industry  and  morality  require 
that  something  be  done  in  the  schools  to  establish  good  habits  and 
stimulate  the  domestic  virtues.  During  the  past  year  the  cities  of 
Boston,  Si)ringfield,  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore  and  Washing- 
ton have  made  rapid  progress  in  providing  facilities  for  instruction  in 
manual  arts.  In  countries  abroad,  still  more  complete  and  thorough 
provision  is  being  made  in  this  line.  England,  Belgium  and  France 
have  taken  important  steps  toward  giving  an  industrial  character  to 
public  education.  These  facts  are  straws  to  indicate  the  drift  of  public 
opinion.  Is  it  not  jjossible  that  we  still  have  much  to  learn  and  much 
to  accomplish  before  we  have  a  perfect  and  complete  school  system  ? 

New  York  CiTY.f 

Resolved,  That  in  the  girls'  grammar  schools  cooking  should  be 
taught  in  the  third  and  second  grades. 

Resolved,  That  the  instruction  in  cooking  should  be  under  the  direc- 
tion of  special  teachers,  who  should  be  licensed,  employed  and  paid  in 
the  manner  now  provided  for  special  teachers. 

*  Extract  from  the  report  of  Superintendent  S.  T.  Button  for  1888. 

t  Extract  from  a  report  on  "Manual  Training  in  the  Common  Schools,"  sub- 
mitted to  the  Board  of  Education  by  the  committee  on  the  course  of  study  and 
school  books,  June  29,  1887. 


306  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

A.  Estimate  of  expense  (not  including  salaries  of  new  teachers  or 
expense  of  supervision)  of  introducing  manual  training,  as  recom- 
mended, into  all  the  schools,  and  maintenance  the  first  year :  kitchen 
outfit,  $200  per  department,  sixty  departments,  $12,000;  kitchen  sup- 
plies, $100  per  department,  sixty  departments,  $6,000. 

B.  Estimated  expense  (not  including  salaries  of  new  teachers  or 
expense  of  supervision)  of  maintenance  of  manual  training  in  all  the 
schools  in  the  next  succeeding  years :  kitchen,  ten  per  cent,  of  outfit, 
$1,200  ;  kitchen  supplies,  |6,000. 

New  York  College  for  the  Training  of  Teachers.* 
Department  of  Domestic  Economy. 
The  instruction  in  this  department  includes  cooking  and  sewing.  The 
primary  objects  of  the  cooking  course  are  to  stimulate  investigation,  to 
develop  the  power  of  accurate  observation  and  to  lead  the  pupils  to  put 
to  practical  use  in  the  preparation  of  food  their  knowledge  of  the  natural 
sciences.  Throughout  the  entire  course  the  students  are  instructed  in 
chemistry  of  cooking  and  food  nutrition,  by  means  of  lectures  illustrated 
by  charts  and  a  food-museum.  There  is  also  a  prescribed  course  of 
reading  and  lectures  on  domestic  economy,  including  all  matters  relat- 
ing to  the  care  and  hygiene  of  the  household.  There  are  no  demon- 
stration lessons,  the  work  in  the  cooking  laboratory  being  entirely 
practical.  The  course  of  study  includes  ten  lessons  on  each  of  the  fol- 
lowing subjects :  the  principles  of  cooking,  with  practical  illustrations, 
plain  cooking,  preparation  of  fancy  dishes,  cooking  for  the  sick,  and  a 
course  of  lessons  intended  to  teach  the  most  economical  methods  of 
choosing  and  preparing  food.  This  course  occupies  four  periods  a  week 
during  the  senior  year. 

Model  School. 
Grainmar  Grade.  —  Cooking  is  begun  in  this  grade,  and  includes  some 
information  regarding  the  chemical  composition  and  relative  nutritive 
power  of  various  foods  ;  combustion  and  the  making  of  a  fire  ;  measuring 
materials  and  the  elements  of  cookery ;  the  application  of  this  knowledge 
in  the  making  of  bread,  soups,  biscuits,  tea,  coffee,  etc.,  and  in  the  proper 
methods  of  prei^aring  fish,  meats  and  vegetables  for  use  as  food. 

Institute  of  Technology,  Boston,  Mass. 
Instruction  of  great  value  is  given  in  sanitary  chemistry  in  a  course 
which  consists  mainly  of  laboratory  work.  A  special  laboratory  has 
been  equipped  for  the  23urpose.  For  all  Avho  choose  to  pursue  the  sub- 
ject, a  minimum  amount  of  work  is  laid  out,  consisting  of  a  study  of  the 
methods  in  common  use  for  the  chemical  examination  of  air  and  water, 
of  milk  and  of  butter.  Subsequently  opportunity  is  afforded  for  the 
critical  study  of  other  methods  of  analysis,  for  the  examination  of  other 
articles  of  food,  and  for  the  investigation  of  a  variety  of  sanitar}^  prob- 
lems in  which  chemical  questions  are  involved. 

*  Extract  from  Circular  of  Information  for  1889. 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION. 


307 


ViLLE  DE  Paris.     (Ecoles  Primaires  Communales  de  Filles.) 
Economie  Domestique  et  HygUne. 

COURS   SUPfiRIEUR. 

Une  le^on  de  trois  quarts  cVlieure  par  semaine  pendant  laquelle  les 
eleves  pourront,  tout  en  ecoutant  le  professeur,  se  livrer  a  des  travaux 
de  couture. 

Premier  Trimeslre. 


Economie  Domestique. 

Definition  de  r^eonomie  domes- 
tique. 

Devoirs  d'une  maitresse  de  mai- 
son. 

Qualities  d'une  bonne  nienagere  : 
ordre,  economie,  proprete,  vigi- 
lance, etc. 

Budget. 

Comptabilite  du  menage  :  carnet 
journalier,  balance,  equilibre  du 
budget. 

Inventaire  du  mobilier. 

Loyer,  Impots.  Engagement  de 
location ;  bail,  conge. 

Deuxikme 

Mobilier  de  Tappartement ;  choix 
et  entretien. 

Distribution  du  travail  de  la 
menagere. 

Travaux  d'entretien  par  jour, 
par  semaine,  par  sason,  etc. 

Conseils  sur  la  maniere  de  faire 
un  lit,  de  balayer,  d'  epousseter, 
etc. 

Meubles  et  ustensiles  de  cuisine, 
diflferantes  especes  de  fourneaux. 

Allumage  des  feux. 

Entretien  et  allumage  des 
lampes. 

Entretien  des  ustensiles  de  cui- 
sine, de  la  vaisselle,  etc. 

Combustible.  —  Donner  les  indi- 
cations economiques  sur  les  diflfer- 
antes sortes  de  combustible,  sur 
leur  emploi. 

De  la  Gave.  —  Exposition,  amen- 
agement,  soins  a  domier  au  vin, 
conservation. 


Hygikne. 

Definition  de  Thygiene. 

Hygiene  de  I'habitation. 

Choix  de  Thabitation ;  exposi- 
tion, salubrite. 

Ventilation,  aeration. 

Entretien  de  Thabitation  et  du 
mobilier  au  point  de  vue  sanitaire. 


Trimeslre. 

Chauffage  et  eclairage  au  point 
de  vue  de  Thygiene. 

Aeration  des  locaux  jjourvus 
d'vin  appareil  de  chauflfage. 

Dangers  des  poeles  dans  les 
chambres  a  coucher,  precautions 
a  prendre. 

Proprietes  des  diflferantes  especes 
de  combustibles,  de  leur  influence 
sur  I'appareil  respiratoire. 

Divers  modes  d'eclairage. 

Des  precautions  a  prendre  dans 
Temploi  des  lampes  a  essences 
minerales,  des  appareils  a  gay, 
etc. 

Influence  de  I'eclairage  sur  la 
vue.     Hygiene  de  la  vue. 


308  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

Troisikme  Trimestre, 

Choix  et  entretien  du  linge  et  Hygiene  du  A'eteraent. 

des  vetements.  Proprietes    diverges  des  tissue: 

Material  necessaire  aux  travaux      soie,  laine,  coton,  toile,  etc. 
de  couture.  Couleurs  des  vetements,  leur  in- 

Emploi  de  la  macliine  a  coudre.      fluence. 

Confection  du  linge  et  des  vete-  De  la  forme  des  vetemente  au 

ments.  point  de  vue  de  Thygiene. 

Raccomodages    divers:     repri-  Proprete  du  linge  et  des  vete- 

sage,  rapiegage,  etc.  ments,  son  influence  sur  la  sant6. 

Blanchissage.  —  Materiel  neces- 
saire au  blanchissage  et  au  repas- 
sage.  Des  diflferants  modes  de 
blanchissage,  lessive,  savonnage. 

Conseils  pour  laver  le  linge,  le 
plier,  le  repasser. 

Des  differantes  sortes  de  taches 
et  de  la  maniere  de  les  enlever. 

Le  professeur  rendra  aisement  cette  le§on  attrayante  :  elle  doit  reposer 
I'eleve  des  etudes  plus  diflficiles  et  plus  abstraites  qui  exigent  un  efibrt 
soutenu  de  I'esprit.  L'economie  domestique  est  en  quelque  sorte  la  rela- 
tion journaliere  des  occupations  de  la  femme  dans  son  menage.  Presque 
toutes  les  jeunes  filles  reconnaitront  dans  ces  legons  les  principes  qu^elles 
voient  appliquer  chaque  jour  dans  leur  famille  ;  mais  sur  lesquels  il  faut 
insister  pour  les  leur  faire  observer.  Rien  n'est  nouveau,  par  consequent 
rien  ne  sera  difficile  pour  elles  dans  cette  science  toute  feminine  qui 
paralt  si  naturelle  a  la  femme  qu'on  s'etonnerait  presque  de  devoir  la  lui 
enseigner. 

Nous  conseillons  au  professeur  d'accompagner  ses  le§ons  d'exemples 
pris  dans  la  vie  usuelle  et  de  parler  aux  yeux  des  eleves  au  moyen  de 
dessins  executes  sur  le  tableau  noir. 

COURS   COMPLEMENT  AIRES. 
Une  169011  de  une  heure  et  demie  par  semalne. 

Premier  Trimestre. 
t 
Economie  Domestique.  Hygiene. 

Revision  des  matieres  etudiees  Revision  des  matieres  etudiees 

pendant    I'annee     prec^dente    au      pendant    I'annee     precedante    au 
cours  superieur.  cours  superieur. 

Deuxikme  Trimestre. 

Alimentation.  Hygiene  de  Talimentation. 

Viandes  de  Boucherie.  1  p,    .  ,    -  Proprietes    nutritives    des    ali- 

Volaille,  gibier,  pois- ,'-  ments,  leur  digestibilite. 

son,  lait,  beurre,  oeufs.    J   ^'^^  ^  ^-  Boissons  ;    alcools. — De  la    so- 

Boissons.  —  Vin,  biere,  cidre,  eau  briet6. 
potable. 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION.                          809 

Principes  elementaires  de  la  cui-  De  I'lisage  des  fruits.    Precau- 

sine.     Pot-au-feti,    roti,  sauces  et  tions  a  prendre  en  cas  d'epidemie. 

assaisonnements,  cuisson   des  le-  Danger  des  fruits  verts. 


gumes. 


Falsification  des  aliments. 


Provisions  dit  menage. 

Beurre,  oeufs,  huiles,  etc. ;  con- 
fitures et  conserves. 

Conservation  des  legumes  et  des 
fruits. 

Troisieme  Trimestre. 

Du  jardinage.    Son  utilite  et  son  Hygiene  du  corps.  —  Ablutions, 

ao"rement.  bains,  soins  de  proprete. 

De  I'utilite  des  engrais.  Sommeil,  exercise,  repos. 

Distribution  du  jardin.    Culture  Preparation    de    tisanes    et    de 

des  arbres,  des  legumes,  et   des  quelgues  medicaments, 

fleurs.  Petite  plaarmacie  du  menage. 

Le  Jardin  medicinal.  Precautions  a  prendre  en  cas  d' 

Savoir  vivre.    Des  lettres  offi-  epidemics, 

cielles,  petitions,  etc.  Vaccination  et  revaccination. 

Conseils    pour    quelques    cere-  Maladies  et  accidents 

monies  Soins  a  donner  aux  maladies  et 

aux  convalescents. 

Dans  ces  lemons  theoriques  d'economie  domestique,  le  professeur  devra 
faire  intervenir  les  eleves  qui  sont  exercees  a  tour  de  role  a  Tenseign- 
ment  pratique  du  menage  (chaque  jeudi,  par  sSrie  de  dix  pour  la  cui- 
sine, et  dix  pour  le  blanchissage  et  rexDassage) .  II  leur  demandera  d'ex- 
pliquer  a  haute  voix,  a  leurs  compagnes,  les  operations  de  cuisine  et  de 
blanchissage  auxquelles  elles  auront  pris  part  dans  la  le^on  precedente. 
Cet  exercice  aura  le  double  but  d'habituer  les  eleves  a  s'expliquer  claire- 
ment  sur  des  questions  simples  et  faciles,  en  meme  temps  qu'il  les  forcera 
a  preter  plus  d'attention  a  des  operations  qu'elles  s'attendront  a  decrire 
devant  toute  une  classe. 

couRS  d'  application. 

Cuisine  —  Netloyages  —  Blanchissage. 

Ces  cours  out  pour  but  de  completer  par  des  exercices  pratiques  les 
notions  theoriques  domieC-s  aux  jeunes  filles  dans  le  cours  d'economie 
domestique,  de  leur  en  montrer  Papplication  et  de  leur  donner  le  gout, 
sinon  le  science  complete  du  menage,  si  necessaire  a  toutes  les  femmes. 
A  I'aide  de  ces  le^jons  et  des  principes  qu'elles  y  auront  puises,  elles 
pourront  rendre  des  services  dans  leur  famille  et  perfectionner  par  Pex- 
perience  et  par  la  pratique  les  premieres  connaissances  qu'elles  auront 
acquises. 

Les  cour  d'application  ont  lieu  le  jeudi,  de  huit  heures  et  demie  a  deux 
heures,  du  ler  octobre  au  ler  juin  dans  toutes  les  Scoles  qui  poss^dent 
un  cours  complementaire. 

Division  en  Deux  Cours.  —  lis  se  divisent  en  deux  cours  :    1"  i'e  cours 


310  MANUAL   TKAININa   AND 

de  cuisine,  confie  a  une  maitresse  cuisiniere ;  2°  Le  cours  de  blanchis- 
sage,  repassage,  netloyages,  etc.,  confie  a  uae  maitresse  blanchisseuse. 

Ces  deux  cours  sent  diriges  et  surveillSs  par  deux  des  adjointes  chargees 
du  cours  complementaire. 

Burke  de  Chaque  Serie  de  Cours.  —  Chacun  de  ces  cours  sera  suivi  par 
dix  eleves  environ  et  comprendra  huit  logons.  Sa  duree  est  done  de 
deux  mois  par  serie  de  vingt  eleves. 

Les  eleves  des  cours  de  cuisine  passeront  au  cours  de  blanchissage  au 
bout  des  deux  mois  de  cours  et  reciproquement,  de  fagon  a  prendre  part, 
en  quatre  mois  a  tons  les  exercices  du  cours  de  cuisine  et  du  cours  de 
blanchissage.  Du  ler  octobre  au  ler  juin,  quarante  eleves  environ 
devront  done  recevoir  I'enseignement  menager. 

Local.  —  Le  cours  de  blanchissage  et  de  repassage  pourra  avoir  lieu 
dans  le  preau  convert.  On  y  amenagera  des  tables  sur  des  treteaux,  des 
planches  a  repasser,  des  fourneaux  a  gaz  pour  chauff"er  les  fers,  des 
baquets  pour  laverle  linge,une  armoire  pour  renfermer  I'outillage.  Le 
materiel  volant  sera  enleve  apres  chaque  legon. 

II  serait  a  desirer  qu'une  piece  speciale  fiit  affectee  a  I'enseignement 
de  la  cuisine.  A  defaut  de  cetta  piece,  il  faudra  se  contenter  de  la, 
cantine  de  Tecole,  a  condition  que  cette  cantine  soit  assez  vaste,  bien 
aeree,  bien  eclairee  et  en  dehors  du  logement  de  la  concierge.  II  sera 
necessaire  de  menager  dans  cette  cantine  une  space  specialement  reserve 
aux  ustensiles  de  la  cuisine  du  jeudi,  qui  ne  doivent  en  aucun  cas  servir 
a  la  cantiniere,  et  d'y  placer  une  armoire  fermant  a  clef  pour  y  serrer  la 
vaisselle  et  les  provisions  do  menage. 

Cours  de  Cuisine.  —  Le  cours  de  cuisine  comprendra  I'achat  des  pro- 
visions necessaires  au  dejeuner  et  dont  la  liste  est  fixee  d'avance  par  le 
menu  du  jour,*  la  tenue  du  carnet  de  depenses,  la  preparation  et  la 
cuisson  des  aliments,  la  mise  du  convert.  Toutes  ces  operations  devront 
etre  decrites  au  fur  et  a  mesure  de  leur  execution.  Cette  premiere  partie 
de  la  legon  durera  de  huit  heures  et  demie  a  midi.  Les  eleves,  ainsi  que 
la  maitresse,  dejeuneront  ensuite  et  jugeront  ellesmemes  de  la  qualite 
des  mets  confectionnes  par  elles.  (Elles  apporteront  de  chez  elles  leur 
pain  et  leur  vin.)t 

Apres  le  dejeuner,  tout  devra  etre  remis  en  ordre,  la  vaisselle  lavee, 
les  ustensiles  de  cuisine  nettoyes.  Les  deux  maitresses  adjointes  feront 
chacune  pour  la  section  qu'elle  aura  surveillee  un  resume  oral  des 
operations  du  jour  pendant  lequel  les  eleves  prendront  des  notes,  qu'elles 
auront  a  rediger  pour  la  le^on  suivante  en  les  accompagnant  du  compte 
de  la  depense  et  du  prix  de  revient  de  chaque  plat  par  convive. 

On  trouvera  plus  loin  huit  menus  d'dte  et  huit  menus  d'hiver.  On  y 
verra  designes  des  accommodements  de  viandes  froides  tels  que  :  miro- 
ton,  hachis,  croquettes,  etc.  Ces  accommodements  des  restes  de  la  veille 
sont  si  necessaires  dans  un  menage  que  I'on  ne  devra  pas  s'arreter  a  la 
difficulte  qu'ils  presentent  necessairement  dans  un  cours  qui  n'a  lieu 


*■  Trois  61eves  accompagn6es  de  la  maitresse  cuisiniere  et  sous  la  surveillance  d'une 
maitresse  adjointe  iront  chaque  jendi  faire  les  provisions  du  jour, 
t  Les  dix  61eves  du  cours  de  blanchissage  devront  apporter  leur  dejeuner. 


INDUSTRIAL    EDUCATION.  311 

qu'raie  fois  par  semaine.  Un.  pot-au-feu,  fait  le  mercredi  a  la  cantine  de 
Tecole,  permettra  de  conserver  pour  le  lendemain  un  raorceau  de  boeuf 
bouilli  qui  sera  accommode  par  les  Sieves  de  la  classe  de  cuisine. 

Cours  de  blanchissage  et  de  nettoyage.  —  L'emploi  du  temps  des  coiirs 
de  blanchissage  et  de  nettoyages,  est  egalement  regie  pour  chaque  legon. 
La  directrice  de  I'c'cole  comprendra  la  necessite  de  procurer  aux  eleves 
quelques  objets  mobiliers  a  nettoyer.  Le  materiel  de  I'ecole  en  foumira 
d'ailleurs  em  certain  nombre. 

Cliavue  eleve  de  ce  cours  apportera  les  quelques  objets  de  linge  qu'elle 
devra  layer  et  repasser. 

PuKDUE  University,  Lafayette,  Inc.* 

SCHOOL   OF  DOMESTIC   ECONOMY,   1887-88. 

First  Term,  Freshman  Year. 
Oct.        3.    Lecture.  —  Home  making. 

4.  Lecture.  —  Our  Mtehen  interests. 

5.  Lecture. —  The  art  of  cooking. 

6.  Lecture.  —  Bread  making. 

10.     Practice.  —  Bread  making,  including  yeast,  ferment,  dough. 

17.    Practice.  —  Fermentation  of  dough,  baking  of  dough,  cook- 
ing and  care  of  bread. 

24.    Practice.  —  Graham  bread,  fancy  rolls  and  twists  ;  German 
coffee  cake. 

31.    Lecture.  —  Boiling,  simmering,  stewing. 
Nov.       7.    Practice.  —  Soup  stock,  beef  tea,  plain  soup. 

14.    Practice.  —  Boiling  meats  and  vegetables. 

21.    Practice.  —  Stewing  meats  and  vegetables. 

28.    Lecture.  —  Broiling  and  roasting. 
Dec.       5.    Practice.  —  Broiling  meats  and  poultry. 

12.  Practice.  —  Dressing  poultry,  larding. 

19.  Practice.  —  Dressing  meats  and  poultry. 

Second  Term,  Sophomore  Year. 
Jan.        9.    Practice.  —  Making  omelets,  and  cooking  eggs. 

16.    Practice.  —  Cooking  cereals,  and  making  coffee,  tea  and 

chocolate. 
23.    Lecture.  —  Frying. 

30.     Practice.  —  Frying    oysters,  ham,  chicken,  potatoes   and 
mush. 
Feb.       6.    Practice.  —  Baking,  boiling,  frjang  and  scalloping  fish. 

13.  Practice.  —  Making  fruit,  custard  and  English  pies. 

20.  Practice.  —  Making  puddings,  and  pudding  sauces. 
27.    Lecture.  —  Mixing  and  seasoning. 

March    5.    Practice.  —  Making  chicken,  vegetable  and  fruit  salads. 
12.    Practice.  —  Making  croquettes,  stews  and  hashes. 
19.    Practice.  —  Setting  tables,  and  serving  food. 

*  Extract  from  Annual  Catalogue. 


312  MANUAL    TRAINING. 

Third  term,  Junior  Tear. 
Lecture.  —  Household  vianagement. 
Practice.  —  Housework. 
Practice.  —  Laundry  work. 

Practice.  —  Selecting  meats  and  family  supplies. 
Practice.  —  Handling  milk  and  cream,  making  and  taking 

care  of  butter. 
Practice.  —  Boning  turkey  and  chicken. 
Practice.  —  Making  cake. 
Practice.  —  Delicate  desserts. 
Practice.  —  Making  candy. 
Lecture.  —  Social  etiquette  aiid  usages  of  society. 
Practice.  —  A  high  tea  and  sociable. 

This  work  may  be  taken  by  students  already  in  the  University,  with- 
out interfering  with  their  regular  course  of  study. 

A  special  course  of  instruction  will  be  arranged  for  those  who  desire 
to  come  to  the  University  and  devote  their  entire  time  to  the  study  and 
practice  of  domestic  economy.  This  special  course  will  include  daily 
instruction  and  practice  for  a  term  of  eleven  weeks,  commencing  Jan. 
9, 1888. 


March  26. 

April 

2. 

9. 

16. 

23. 

30. 

May 

7. 

14. 

2L 

28. 

June 

4. 

jRi^MJWwp.^...  j^.ky^Mi'iiyiux.^-.- 


m 


. ^1  ■__■■__ 


S"  V  V  "■■  ■ 


+J+T+ 
+T+T* 


■■vv 

hi  »        KB        ■ 
m        «  »        KM 


Plate  XVI. 


Plate  XVII. 


Plate  XVIII. 


o 


Plate  XIX. 


n  ]"']  n 

■  JL  JL  JL  r 

)...]  LJ  LJ 

ir  ir  ir  1 

]"]  ri  VI 

JL  JLJL  m 

L  J  L  J  L  J 

ir-ir  jr| 

Plate  XX. 


Plate  XXI. 


Plate  XXII. 


'Mv 


fcrra 


Z3 


vV - 

'  # 

%^' 

^'"\ 

DDD 
DDD 

j 

f  4 :..  _. 

\ 

/ 

, 

Plate  XXI II. 


Plate  XXIV. 


I  I'lunrrn  I  ■ 


^.  J         J.       i 


-jii- i-,tn-  -t^'^-.— ^— I  i.ii.iii>cnnTrirnr]ii-ii  i    m  iniiii  .lU* 


,..     •,-        ■;;;  .    -    ^y," -^ 

$  I     ....     .      i 


Plate  XXVI. 


Plate  XXVII. 


Plate  XXVIII. 


Plate  XXIX. 


TIN  T . 


!••#•• 


-T  VX  I  )ARI). 


SHADE. 


Red. 


Red-orange. 


Orange. 


Plate  XXX. 


STANi:>ARr) 


Orange-yellow. 


Yellow. 


Yellow-green. 


Plate  XXXI. 


TINT. 


STANDARD 


SHADE. 


«« 


Green. 


Green-blue. 


Blue. 


Plate  XXXII. 


TINT. 


STANDARD 


SHADE 


Blue-violet. 


Violet. 


Violet-red. 


Plate  XXXIII. 


TINT 


STANDAT^L) 


SHADE. 


Tertiary  Colors. 


t  1 

^^        PlCfURES 


:^/ 


t  c 


-      .  hUi4 

A  1  L  H 


Manual  Train ini: 


7mm'^4r  4  i> 


♦♦♦♦♦ 


■,/«:■' 
^ 


®#  #@  #• 


I1i-,i"  ills.  FACTS,    \pplii-.ui<m. 


\|i|iliaili»ii. 


r 


._j,  .X/-^.. 


(Nam 


ri^A. 


AHRANGENEMTS. 


♦■♦■    ilHBHI 


♦  ♦♦♦♦ 


•  ■  •  ■  • 


^    *  i  X    K    ■  ■  ■  ■  ■ 


Plate  XXXIV. 


foliH  !n-ttiiiiiiiii 


X  X  •!•  4* 


TaH«  laying,  Drawitie  FACTS,  VppliciiKiii 

•  ■  ■  «  ▼  M        ■  ,  ,   


SECOND  VE  VR 


\  / 


■  I 

♦ 


"sftiMirf  n,iif 

I'l-.miiE   FACTS.  \(.|il>ailiiii 


uy 


fTJi  uSu 

SSislI    O  D  o 


D^'~ 


,a 


Plate  XXXV. 


<t)l«i  ItMllldHM) 


THIRD  YE  VR 


FiiM  Halt 
WiKk-ls  and  OhjciK        CtXVBTRlXJTION.        \|»plicjuon 


SowKi  llnlf 


u  ^Ji^^  Ll 


MikJcIs  and  ObjLvK      raPraSENTATKJN.      Vpplbition. 


\!.HJi.k,iii.lOI,iL(K       COf>eTRUCTKm         \wILmmi 


'-^ 


G  i_. 


i    I    I      ^  Hi 


\li.dcK,ind  DiijciK      REPRESENTATION.      \ppliGHiuu 


Plate  XXXVI. 


('«l)t(  Irtsltiutli'li 


r  tetnuliMi: 


*••♦  t444»  ^O^ 


Firs<  Half 


F()l  Rl  II  MM 


H.^U.  ami  ObK.ts,        CONSirnKmOM         ^in^kaliou. 


\lanui'    rnnnuu'     .  I 


%.1jt,  .in.l  <)!))«  K 


XTKH      K)>plm\m. 


I     1 


.KH  ^}!pSta>n.Tn 


Vi...i.,K  iwi  OhftK       CONSTRUCTION.         ^fl'licittwi. 


:     u       r    ^ 

r  J  ,   1 


\ 


"~\" 


\j — — 


MirftK.mJ  f%,(-.     REPREBSSfTATlW      M»i)lteiium 


,,,  IK 


Elcttttfits  5Tnii?l         IKCORATKa^.  \}(p'i!catm 


Plate  XXXVII. 


Firsl  Half 
Models  and  Objctts.        CONSTFaJCTTOM.         Kiy,iUcii 

l\         -n       ,«=., 


FIFTH  VF\R 


up 


i  V     V 


MikIcIs  iind  (^bpis.  .   REPRESENT ATTON.       Vppliciimr 


CONS"mUCT!ON. 


a 


lj    /_ 


LL 


-f.-i 


MiiJtK  mil  (lltiirlv.     REPRESENTATION.       \liplicatloii. 
^1 


i  ^ 


L_        !_J  r-,r       '-ft 


.  i    J  J      '-J 


€  *^! 


V 


Hiniciitv  »t  HcniiH  DECORATTON.  Vppliaitlim. 


X)RATK)N.  Vppliaitlim. 

4.  t  ♦ 

•    III  ll. 


EIliiiciiK  III  Itciiih  DECX)RA' 


\p[)licaiiun. 


4*  4* 


Plate  XXXVIII. 


Plate  XXXIX. 


Plate  XL. 


Plate  XLI. 


Plate  XLII. 


//  ■ 

/'    -,  '\    ' 

.1     .    . 

!      ^ .   \  ! "',),'•'"-'  '■■  V  '\      •    '               '     ■ 

/,    '■■-'■ 

,,-%i%'/:    '■/■■■'■;;■ 

^ --,,.¥■  .'•:,,  >;^/    ^' 

'-     • '  '  ■,^-^': 

;,  /   /  V;^,,:;:^..-^;,.;  );, 

\    1     '    '_V;    ; 

"■■  ^^  ■ 

~7'„^-  '     -'-'',• ^                    J'^ 

Plate  XLIII. 


Plate  XLIV. 


J  ■   i 


i'; 


.-^^  \i/A. 


3r^ 


<€ 


3 


■t!#- 


1  H  V  - 


1 


{^ 


Plate  XLV. 


Plate  XLVI. 


Plate  XLVII. 


Plate  XLVIir. 


Plate  XLIX. 


Plate  L. 


Plate  LI. 


Plate  LI  I. 


Plate  LIII. 


Plate  LIV. 


Plate  LV. 


Plate  LVI. 


Plate  LVII. 


Plate  LVIII. 


Plate  LIX. 


Plate  LX. 


Plate  LXI. 


Plate  LXII. 


o 

H 
m 
O 

m 
6 

H 

M 

ffl 

ob 

CO 

W 
P 
ft 

!?; 
aa 


o 

pq 

'A 
o 

H 
O 
13 

H 

o 

O 

Q 

< 
O 


Ph 


Plate  LXXI, 


Plate  LXXII. 


Plate  LXXIII. 


PHOTOGRAPHS 


Plates  XVI.-XXV.,  Ivindergarten  Occupations. 

Plates  XXVI.-XXXIII.,  Mrs.  Cutler's  Primary  Manual  Training 
Course. 

Plates  XXXIV.-XLI.,  Prang's  Manual  Training  Course. 

Plates  XLII.-XLV.,  Original  Designs  and  Applied  Drawing  in 
Grammar  Schools. 

Plates  XLVI.-LV.,  Clay  Modelling  :  Kindergarten,  Primary  and 
Grammar  Grades. 

Plates  LVI.-LIX.,  Normal  School  of  Cookery. 

Plates  LX.,  LXI.,  Normal  Kindergarten  Work. 

Plates  LXII.-LXX.,  Classes  in  Cooking,  Sewing,  Card-board 
Construction  (Grammar),  Clay  Modelling  (Primary)  and 
Building  (Kindergarten). 

Plate  LXXI.,  The  Eva  Rodhe  Models. 

Plate  LXXII.,  Wood-work  of  New  York  Training  College, 
Lowest  Grammar  Grades. 

Plate  LXXIII.,  Wood-work  op  New  York  Training  College, 
Work  of  Normal  Pupils. 

[313] 


314:  MANUAL   TBAH^li^G  AND 


Appendix    O. 


CONTEIBUTION"     TO     THE     BIBLIOGRAPHY     OF     MANUAL 
TRAINING   AND    INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION. 

By  MARY  DANA  HICKS. 


Alq,  Mme.  Therese  d',Les  ouvrages  de  main,  adopts  pour  les  bibliotlifeques 
scolaires.     Paris,  A.  L.  Charles,  1892, 

American  Social  Science  Associations.  Eeport  on  a  developing  school  and 
school  shops  by  a  committee  appointed  by  the  American  Social  Science 
Association,  1877. 

Arbeitsschule  und  Folksschule,  Laesst  sich  die  Arbeitsschul  mit  der 
Folksschul  verbinden?  nebst  Bericht  ueber  mehren  Sloydschulen. 
Wittenberg,  1881. 

Art  in  manual  training  schools.  Eeport  of  committee  on  exhibit  at  the 
Chicago  Manual  Training  School,  Josephine  Carson  Locke,  Thos.  W. 
Fry,  Solon  W.  Beman.  College  for  the  Training  of  Teachers.  Educa- 
tional Leaflet  No.  42,  1889. 

Banes,  Chas.  H.  Manual  training  and  apprenticeship  schools  in  1890. 
Phila.,  Geo.  H.  Buchanan  &  Co  ,  1890. 

Barth,  E.  &  Niederley,  W.  Die  Schulwerbstatt.  Ein  Leitfaden  zur 
Einfuehrung  der  technischen  Arbeiten  in  die  Schule.  Leipzig,  Bel- 
hagen  &  Klasing,  1882. 

Barth,  E.  &  Niederley,  W.  Des  Kindes  erstes  Beschaeftigungsbuch. 
Leipzig,  Belhagen  &  Klasing,  1891. 

Belfleld,  H.  H.  Manual  training  and  the  public  school.  Monographs  of 
the  I.  E.  A.    Vol.  1,  No.  1.    New  York,  1888. 

Blake,  James  Vila.  Manual  training  in  education.  Chicago,  C.  H.  Kew 
&  Co.,  1886. 

Bourgoin,  C,  &  Schmitt,  M.  Couture  elementaire  et  travaux  d'agrement, 
suivis  de  notions  trus  simples  d'Lconomie  domestique  et  d'Hygiene, 
redig6  d'aprcs  le  programme  official  des  travaux  manuels  pour  les 
flUes.     Paris,  Pigoreau,  1892. 

Bower,  J.  A.  How  to  make  common  things.  London  Society  for  promot- 
ing Christian  Knowledge,  1893. 

Brookline,  Mass.    Manual  training  in  the  public  schools.     Boston,  1891. 

Butler,  Nicholas  Murray.  Manual  training  as  an  element  in  public  educa- 
tion.    University  Convocation,  1888. 


INDUSTKIAL   EDUCATION.  315 

Calkins,  N.  A.  Educational  demands  of  to-day.  New  York,  Industrial 
Educational  Association,  1887. 

Chalamet,  R.  El.  La  Premiere  annge  d'economie  domestique.  Paris, 
A.  Colin  et  cie.,  1892. 

Clark,  John  S.  Industrial  education  a  necessary  part  of  public  education. 
American  Institute  of  Instruction,  July  13,  1882. 

Clark,  John  S.  Industrial  education  from  a  business  stand-point.  De- 
livered before  the  Franklin  Institute  and  the  Philadelphia  Board  of 
Trade,  June  6,  1881.     Boston,  1881. 

Clark,  John  S.  Woodward,  C.  M.  Industrial  Education.  Manual  Edu- 
cation.    Boston,  1883. 

Clarke,  Isaac  Edwards.  Art  and  industry.  American  educatiiju  in  fine 
and  industrial  arts.  Industrial  and  manual  training  in  the  public 
schools.     Washington  Government  Printing  Office,  1892. 

Clauson-Kaas,  A.  Die  Arbeitsschule  neben  der  Lernschule  und  der 
hausliche  Gewerbfleiss.     Berlin. 

Clauson-Kaas,  A.  Ueber  Arbeitsschulen  und  Foerderung  des  Hansfleisses. 
Bremen,  1881. 

Crichton-Browne,  James.  Handcraft.  Monographs,  New  York.  College 
for  Training  of  Teachers.     Vol.  III.,  No.  5.     New  York,  1890. 

Cutler,  Caroline  F.  Primary  manual  training.  Boston,  Educational  Pub- 
lishing Company,  1891. 

Dauzat  et  Deramond.  Les  travaux  manuels  a  I'Scole  primaire  a  I'usage 
des  ecoles  de  gargons.     Paris,  A.  Picard  et  Kaan,  1892. 

Desforges,  G.  Cours  pratique  d'enseiguement  manuel.  Paris,  Sauthier- 
Villars  et  flls,  1892. 

Dillmont,  Th^rese  de.  Encyclopedic  des  ouvrages  de  dames.  Paris,  Ch. 
Delagrave,  1892. 

Dutton,  S.  T.  Manual  training :  in  what  it  consists ;  its  educational  value; 
its  place  in  the  schools. 

Egleston,  Thomas.  Cooking  schools.  College  for  the  Training  of  Teach- 
ers.    Educational  Leaflet  No.  61,  1890. 

Egleston,  Thomas.  The  worth  of  manual  training.  College  for  the  Train- 
ing of  Teachers.     Educational  Leaflet  No.  57,  1890. 

Eisenlohr,  Th.     Die  Volkschule  und  die  Handarbeit.     Stuttgart,  Eduard 

Hallberger,  1854. 
Elkins,  S.  B.     American  civilization.     1888. 

Elm,  Hugo.     De  kleiue  Papparbeiter.     Leipzig,  Otto  Spamer,  1878. 
England.     The  technical  instruction  act.     College  for  the  Training  of 

Teachers.    Educational  Leaflet  No.  48,  1889. 

Fabre,  J.  H.  Premiers  Elemens  d'economie  domestique.  Paris,  Ch. 
Delagrave,  1892. 

Faivre,  £mile.  Enseignement  du  travail  manuel  a  I'ecole  primaire.  Paris, 
Hachette  et  cie.,  1887. 

Form  study  and  drawing.  Report  to  the  conference  of  educational  work- 
ers, New  York,  by  Walter  S.  Perry,  Mary  Dana  Hicks,  Josephine  C. 
Locke.  College  for  the  Training  of  Teachers.  Educational  Leaflet 
No.  33,  1889. 


316  MANUAL    TKAINING   AND 

France.  Ministere  de  V instruction  puhlique,  des  beaux  arts  et  des  cultes. 
Instruction  speciale  sur  I'enseignement  du  travail  manuel  dans  les 
Scoles  normales  d'instituteurs  et  les  ^coles  primaires,  elementaires  et 
superieures.    Paris,  Impr.  nationale,  1886. 

Friedrich,  Karl.  Die  Erziehung  zur  Arbeit,  eine  Forderung  des  lebens  an 
die  Schule.    Leipzig,  1852. 

Gilman,  D.  C.  A  plea  for  the  training  of  the  hand.  Monographs  of  the 
I.  E.  A.  Vol.  1,  No.  1.  New  York,  Industrial  Educational  Associa- 
tion.    1888. 

Girouz,  Mme.  Traite  de  la  coupe  et  de  I'assemblage  des  vetements  de 
femmes  et  d'enfants.     Paris,  Hachette  et  cie.,  1892. 

Goetze,  Waldemar.  Die  Ergaenzung  des  Schul-unterrichts  duren  prak- 
tische  Beschaeftigung.    Leipzig,  1881. 

Grand'homme,  E.  Coupes  et  confections  des  vfetements  de  femmes  et 
d'enfants.     Paris,  Pigoreau. 

Ham,  Charles  H.  The  co-education  of  the  mind  and  hand.  Monographs 
of  the  New  York  College  for  the  Training  of  Teachers.  Vol.  III., 
No.  4. 

Ham,  Charles  H.  Manual  training.  The  solution  of  social  and  industrial 
problems.     New  York,  Harper  &  Bros.,  1886, 

Harris,  M.  T.     Art  education  the  true  industrial  education. 

Harris,  W.  T.     The  educational  value  of  manual  training.     1889. 

Harris,  "Wm.  T.     The  psychology  of  manual  training.     1889. 

Hauschmann,  Alexander  Bruno,  &  Clauson-Kaas,  A.  Die  Handarbeit  in  der 
Knabenschule.  Drei  Abhandlungen  ueber  die  Verbindung  des  Kinder- 
gartens und  der  praktischer  Arbeit  mit  der  Lemschule.     Kassel,  1881. 

Hayes,  Eutherford  B.  Manual  training.  Industrial  Educational  Associa- 
tion, Educational  Leaflet  No.  12,  1888. 

Haygood,  Atticus  Green.  Hand  as  well  as  head  and  heart  training.  Holly 
Springs,  1885. 

The  Hebrew  technical  institute,  the  work  of.  Industrial  Educational  As- 
sociation, Educational  Leaflet  No.  19,  1888. 

Hertel,  Franz.  Papparbeiten.  Eine  anleitung  fuer  Knaben  im  Alter  von 
8-15  Tahren.     In  3  Hefle.     Gera.  Hofmann,  1889. 

Hervey,  Antoinette  Bryant.  Manual  training.  College  for  the  Training 
of  Teachers.     Educational  Leaflet  No.  44,  1889. 

Hewitt,  W.  A  graduated  course  of  simple  manual  training  exercises  for 
educating  the  hand  and  eye.     London,  Longman,  Green  &  Co.,  1892. 

Hippean,  Mme.  Cours  d'economie  domestique.  Adopte  pour  les  biblio- 
theques  scolaires,     Paris,  J.  Hetzel  et  cie. 

Hirtz,  Mile.  Methode  de  coupe  et  de  confection  pour  les  vetements  de 
femmes  et  d'enfants.  Adopte  par  la  Ministere  pour  les  bibliotheques 
scolaires.     Paris,  Hachette  et  cie. 

Hofi"man,  B.  B.  The  sloyd  system  of  wood-working.  New  York,  Amer- 
ican Book  Company,  1892. 

Langonet,  M.  H.     Manuel  d'outillage.     Paris,  Colin  et  cie.,  1892. 

Hoboken,  N.  J.  Manual  trahiing.  An  exhibition  by  the  public  schools, 
Miiy  22,  1891. 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION.  317 

lUing,  Lorenz,  Wesen  und  Wert  cler  Schulwerkstaetten.  Muenchen, 
1880. 

Jay,  H.,  and  Kidson,  E.  R.  Exercises  for  technical  instruction  in  wood- 
working. Tliree  sets  of  plates.  London,  Longmans,  Green  &  Co., 
1892. 

Jewett,  E.  C.  Manual  training  schools  represented  at  the  Universal  Ex- 
position,    Paris,  1878. 

Jones,  Emily.  A  manual  of  plain  needle-work  and  cutting  out.  London, 
Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 

Jones,  Emily.  Self-teaching  needle-work  manuals,  in  five  parts.  London, 
Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  1891. 

Keep,  Robert  P.  Swedish  manual  training.  Industrial  Educational  Asso- 
ciation, Educational  Leaflet  No.  15,  1888. 

Kilbon,  George  B.  Elementary  wood-work.  Boston,  Lee  &  Shepard, 
1893. 

Kilbon,  George  B.  Knife  work  in  the  school-room.  Springfield,  Milton 
Bradley,  1892. 

Kirkwood,  Louise  J.  Sewing  illustrated.  New  York,  American  Book 
Company,  1881. 

Lammers,  A.  Hand  Bildung  und  Hansfleiss.  (Deutsche  Zeit  und  Streit- 
fragen.)     Berlin,  C.  Habel,  1881. 

Larrson,  G.     Models  in  sloyd,  series  1. 

Larrson,  Gustaf .     Teacher's  Sloyd  Manual.     Boston,  1890. 

Laubier,  D.,  &  Bougueret,  A.  Le  travail  a  I'ecole  de  la  me  Tournefort. 
Paris,  Hachette  &  cie.,  1888. 

Leland,  Charles  Godfrey.  Practical  education.  London,  Whittaker  &  Co., 
1888. 

Lord,  Emily.  Sloyd  as  a  means  of  teaching  the  essential  elements  of 
education.     London,  Cassell  Publishing  Company. 

Love,  Samuel  G.,  and  Willard,  Mary  R.  Industrial  education.  A  guide  to 
manual  training.     New  York,  E.  L.  Kellogg  &  Co.,  1887. 

MacAlister,  James.  Manual  training  in  its  scholastic  and  social  relations. 
1887. 

MacAlister,  James.  Manual  training  in  the  public  schools  of  Philadelphia. 
Monographs  of  the  New  York  College  for  Training  Teachers.  Vol. 
III.,  No.  2.     New  York,  1890. 

MacArthur,  Arthur.  Education  in  its  relation  to  manual  training.  New 
York,  D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  1888. 

Magnus,  Sir  Philip.  Education  in  Bavaria.  Monographs  of  the  Indus- 
trial Educational  Association.  Vol.  I.,  No.  2.  New  York,  Industrial 
Educational  Association,  1888. 

Magnus,  Sir  Philip.     Industrial  education.     London,  1880. 

Magnus,  Sir  Philip,  director  of  the  city  and  guilds  of  London  technical 
institute.  Manual  training  in  English  schools.  College  for  the  Train- 
ing of  Teachers.     Educational  Leaflet  No.  66,  1890. 

The  manual  training  school.  Industrial  Educational  Association.  Educa- 
tional Leaflet  No.  10,  1888. 


318  MANUAL    TRAINING   AND 

Marchef-Girard.      Cours   d'economie  domestique.      Paris,   A.   Picard    et 

Kaan. 
Martin,  M.  P.     Cours  Normal  du  travail  nianuel.     Paris,  Armand  Colin  et 

cie. 
Martineau,  Gertrude.     Drawing  and  wood  carving.    London,  Longmans, 

Green  &  Co.,  1892. 
Mather,  William.     Manual  training  a  main  feature  in  national  education. 

Before  the  section  of  economic  science  and  statistics  at  the  British 

Association  in  Manchester.    Manchester,  1887. 
Meyer,  Johannes.    Der  Handfertigkeits-unternicht  und  die   Schule,   mit 

besondus  Bernecksichtiguug  der  Bestrebungen  des  Eittmeisters  a  D. 

Clauson-Kaas.     (Deutsche  Zeit  und  Streit  Fragen.)     Berlin,  C.  Habel, 

1881. 
Michell,  G.  J.,  and  Smith,  E.  H.     Technical  education  in  the  counties. 

What  is  it?    How  may  it  be  carried  out?    London,  Geo.  Philip  &  Son, 

1892. 
Michelsen,  Rourad.     Die  Arbeits  schulen  der  Landgemeinde  in  ihrem  Zu- 

sammenwirken  mit  dea  Lehrschulen.    Hildesheim,  1881. 

Michelsen,  Konrad.     Die  Lehr  und  Arbeitsschule  zu  Alfeld.     1851. 

Moline  public  schools.     Course  in  handcraft.     Moline,  111. 

Montague,  P.  C.     Technical  education.     Summary  of  report  of  the  royal 

commission.    London,  1887. 
Montclair,  New  Jersey,  manual  training  at.     College  for  the  Training  of 

Teachers.    Educational  Leaflet  No.  38,  1889. 
The  Niitis  seminary  for  teachers  of  manual  training.    Industrial  Educa- 

■  tional  Association,  Educational  Leaflet  No.  8,  1888. 
New  England  Conference  of  Educational  Workers.    Conference  on  manual 

training.     April,  1891. 
Outline  course  of  study  in  elementary  science,  manual  training  and  lan- 
guage.   New  England  Superintendents'  Association,  1890. 
New  Jersey.    Manual  training  and  educational  statistics.     Reports  of  the 

special  committees,  1888. 
New  York  City.     Board  of  education,   manual  training  in  the  common 

schools.     Report  of  the  committee  on  course  of  study  and  school 

books.     New  York,  1887. 
New  York  City.     Manual  training  course  of  study  and  teacher's  manual. 

Board  of  Education,  New  York,  1888. 
Nordberg,   N.    F.      Manual  training    department    of    the   Boston  Earm 

School,  Boston,  Mass. 
Ortleb,  A.  &  G.     Haensliche  Kunstarbeiten  mit  und  ohne  Malerei.    Leipzig, 

Otto  Spamer,  1892. 
Palmer,  Courtlandt.     The  new  education.     An  essay  in  explanation  of  the 

Gramercy  Park  school  and  tool  house.     New  York,  1885. 
Pemberton,  S.  P.     Lectures  in  a  workshop.     New  York,  Industrial  Publi- 
cation Company,  1882. 
Pennsylvania.     Report  of  a  commission  on  industrial  education  made  to 

the  legislature.     Harrisburg,  1889. 


INDUSTEIAL   EDUCATION.  319 

Philippon,  M.  G.,  inspecteur  de  renseignement  manuel.    Travaux  Manuels. 

1.  Guide  pratique  des  travaux  manuels  destine  aux  6coles  sans  atelier. 

2.  Cours  normal  de  travaux  manuels  destine  aux  ecoles  avec  atelier. 

3.  Dessin  —  modelage.     Paris,  Larousse,  1892. 

Pratt  Institute.     Teacher's  manual  of  manual  training.     November,  1889. 
Progressive  lessons  in  the  use  of  the  more  common  wood-carving  tools. 
Industrial  School  Association.     Boston,  1887. 

The  relation  of  education  to  industry  and  technical  training  in  the 
American  schools.  Circular  of  information  of  the  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion, No.  2,  1881. 

Ricks,  Geo.     Hand  and  eye  training.     2  vols.     Cassell  &  Co.,  London, 

1890. 
Rissmann,  Robert.     Geschichte  des  Arbeits  —  unterrichtes  in  Deutschland. 

Gotha,  C.  F.  Thienemann,  1882. 

Runkle,  John  D.     The  manual  element  in  education.     Boston,  1882. 

Richards,  Charles  R.  O'Neil,  Henry  P.  Manual  training  in  the  public 
schools.  Monographs  of  the  New  York  College  for  the  Training  of 
Teachers.     Vol.  IV.,  No.  1. 

Russell,  J.  Scott.  Systematic  technical  education.  London,  Bradbury, 
Evans  &  Co.,  1869. 

St.  John,  George.  Manual  instructions.  "Wood-work  designed  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  the  minute  of  the  science  and  art  department  on 
manual  instruction.    London,  W.  Blackwood  &  Sons,  1891. 

The  St.  Paul  report  on  manual  training.  Industrial  Educational  Associa- 
tion.    Educational  Leaflet  No.  11,  1888. 

Salicis,  G.     Enseignement  du  travail  manuel.     Paris,  1889. 

Salicis,  G.    Enseignement  primaire  et  apprentissage.    Paris,  1878. 

Salicis,  A.  Manual  training  in  France.  Monographs  of  the  New  York 
College  for  the  Training  of  Teachers.  Vol.  III.,  No.  3.  New  York, 
1890. 

Salomon,  Otto.  The  progressive  steps  taken  by  the  Swedish  sloyd 
instruction.  College  for  the  Training  of  Teachers.  Educational 
Leaflet  No.  67,  1890. 

Salomon,  Otto.     Sloydskolan  och  Folkskolan.     Goeteborg,  1878-82. 
Salomon,  Otto.     The  sloyd  in  the  service  of  the  school.     Monographs  of 
the  I.  E.  A.     Vol.  1,  No.  6. 

Schenckendorfl',  Emil  von.  Der  praktische  Unterricht,  eine  Forderung 
der  zeit  an  die  Schule,  sein  erzielicher,  volkswirthschaftlicher  und 
socialer  Werth.     Breslan,  F.,  Hirt,  1880. 

Schmitt,  E.    La  pedagogic  du  travail  manuel.    Paris,  1890. 

Schoenhof ,  Jacob.  Technical  education  in  Europe.  "Washington,  Govern- 
ment Printing  Oflice,  1890. 

Schwal,  Erasmus.  Die  Arbeitsschule  als  organischer  Bestandtheil  der 
Folksschule.    "Wien  Hoelzel,  1873. 

Seidel,  Robert.  Industrial  instruction ;  a  pedagogic  and  social  necessity. 
Boston,  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  1887. 


320   ,  MANUAL    TRAINING. 

Sickels,  Evin,     Exercises  in  wood-working,  with  a  short  treatise  on  wood. 
■      New  York,  D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  1890. 

Slojd.  "What  is  slojd?  College  for  the  Training  of  Teachers.  Educa- 
tional Leaflet  No.  36,  1889. 

Sluys,  A.  L'enseignement  des  travaux  manuels  dans  les  eeoles  primaires 
des  gar^ons.     Paris,  1885. 

Sluys,  A.  Manual  training  for  boys.  Monographs  of  the  I.  E.  A.  Vol. 
II.,  Nos.  1  and2. 

Stetson,  C.  B.  Technical  education ;  what  it  is,  and  what  American  pub- 
lic schools  should  teach.     Boston,  1874. 

Thompson,  Charles  O.,  &  White,  Andrew  Dickson.  Manual  labor  and 
school  work  combined.     1870. 

Thornton,  J.  S.  Sloyd  students  at  Niiils.  College  for  the  Training  of 
Teachers.     Educational  Leaflet  No.  47,  1889. 

Twining,  T.  Technical  training,  sketch  of  a  national  system.  London, 
1874. 

Unwin,  William  Cawthorne.  Exercises  in  wood-working  for  handicraft 
classes  in  elementary  and  technical  schools.  London,  Longmans, 
Green  &  Co.,  1887. 

Walker,  Francis  A.  A  plea  for  industrial  education  in  the  public  schools. 
Boston,  1887. 

Way,  Hamilton.  Physical  and  industrial  training  of  criminals.  Mono- 
graphs of  the  Industrial  Educational  Association.  Vol.  I.,  No.  3.  New 
York,  1888. 

Wirth,  Mile.  E.  La  future  menag^re,  lectures  et  lefons  sur  I'economie 
domestique,  la  science  du  menage,  I'hygiene,  les  qualites  et  les  con- 
naissances  necessaire  a  une  maitresse  de  maison.  Paris,  Hachette  et 
cie.,  1892. 

Wolf,  Otto.  Uber  Handfertigokeit-unterrichts  und  hansfleissvereine. 
Wuerzburg,  1881. 

Wood,  George.     Manual  instruction  in  wood-work.     Leeds,  Arnold,  1892. 

Woods,  Geo.     Practical  education.     Pittsburg,  1879. 

Woodward,  C.  M.  The  educational  value  of  manual  training.  Boston, 
1890. 

Woodward,  C.  N.     The  fruits  of  manual  training.     1884. 

Woodward,  C.  M.  The  intellectual  value  of  manual  training.  New  York, 
1889. 

Woodward,  C.  M.  Manual  training  in  education.  London,  W.  Scott, 
1890. 

Woodward,  C.  M.     Manual  training  schools.     International  confei'ence  on 

education.    London,  1884. 
Woodward,  C.  M.     The  manual  training  school,  comprising  a  statement 
of  its  aims  and  methods  and  results,  with  figured  drawings  of  shop 
exercises  in  woods  and  metals.     Boston,  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  1887. 
Woodward,  C.  M.     Relation  of  manual  training  to  body  and  mind.     1889. 
Wood-working  tools,  and  how  to  use  them.    Boston,  1884. 


22916 


BOSTON  COLLEGE 


3  9031   01513184  0 


T69.1'^'U 


22916 


I  lass.    - 


omrdssion  appointed  -.0 


•re;tigate  t^^e  existing 


Hkii 


Boston  College  Library 

Chestnut  Hill  67,  Mass. 

Books  may  be  kept  for  two    weeks  unless  a 
shorter  period  is  specified. 

If  you  cannot  find  what  you  want,  inquire  at 
the  circulation  desk  for  assistance.' 


